Vol 8, No 4 (2025)

modern Russian-Iranian relations are based on the Treaty on the Fundamentals of Relations and Principles of Cooperation signed in 2001. During the period under study, the parties discussed the development of bilateral partnership, the JCPOA, ways to resolve the problems existing in the Middle East, the situation occurring in Syria and Afghanistan. Contacts are maintained at the level of heads of state, ministers of foreign affairs, the Federation Council, the State Duma of the Russian Federation with the Majlis of the IRI, and secretaries of the Security Councils.

this article is dedicated to the evolution of France's military-political cooperation in the Sahel from 2007 to 2026, which is an important aspect of modern international relations and global security. In recent decades, this North African region has been experiencing severe crises related to terrorism, radicalization, ethnic conflicts, and political instability. The author analyzes how military operations and diplomatic efforts of France have adapted under the influence of these challenges, as well as how Paris's priorities and strategy have changed in response to dynamic events in the region. The study employs various methods, including detailed analysis of official documents, reports from international organizations, and expert interviews. These methods allow for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms by which France has responded to changes in the political and social context, as well as to track the evolution of security approaches. Results indicate a notable shift in emphasis from traditional military operations to a broader and integrated approach involving local communities and initiatives, highlighting the importance of the local context. The conclusion of the article states that successful military-political cooperation requires consideration of the opinions and needs of local populations, as this becomes a prerequisite for long-term stability and security in the Sahel region. Without understanding the local context, the actions of external powers may prove ineffective or even counterproductive. The author emphasizes that addressing complex crises requires not only military components but also comprehensive cooperation at all levels, including economic and humanitarian aspects. Thus, this study not only analyzes current approaches but also proposes new perspectives for the future of military-political cooperation, underscoring its complexity and the necessity of multifaceted analysis.

the purpose of the article is to describe the results of the study of historical memory. In this article, based on interviews, the most significant events of individual and collective historical memory are identified and analyzed. The author notes that the state policy of memory is aimed at counteracting the falsification of history, strengthening civic consciousness and patriotism and includes national and state symbols, official approaches to the interpretation of historical events, as well as regional, socio-cultural, generational and other fields of commemoration, within which the understanding of significant historical achievements of society and the state occurs. Based on the conducted research, the author came to the conclusion that organized forms of public commemoration and personal testimonies, memories of the historical process are often in confrontation, challenging the understanding of the meaning of a particular historical phenomenon. Students perceive the most important stages of the historical process to be those that have become an important part of personal or family experience and are traumatic: participation in voluntary or forced displacements, wars and military conflicts, man-made disasters. Practical application of the article’s conclusions: creation of archives of historical family memory of students.

the article examines and supplements the problem of periodization of national movements, which was developed by corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences R.G. Kuzeev. Studying the periodically recurring national problems that led to a particular conflict situation, R.G. Kuzeev concluded that the socio-political movement in Russia, in turn, intensified the activities of the advanced parts of the elites on the national outskirts for more decisive action. At various stages, under the influence of all-Russian trends, there was an intensification of certain forces expressing their dissatisfaction with certain social problems under the slogans of protecting national interests. Defining the periods of the revival of the national movement in Russia, which took place in the pre–revolutionary period, R.G. Kuzeev found that those tasks that were designated as priority national problems, even at the turn of the XX-XXI century. We have not found our permission yet. Because, as the author believes, they were forcibly interrupted during the revolution and the subsequent formation of the Bashkir Autonomous Socialist Republic. In this regard, according to the researcher, it can be expected that the process resulting in a new national revival will continue. After all, the general democratic and national problems are still unresolved. The experience of economically developed Western countries demonstrates that the national issue is still relevant. Based on the periodization of the national movement proposed by R. G. Kuzeev, we and other researchers have tried to identify new stages in the development of the national movement in modern Bashkortostan and its impact on ethnopolitical processes in general. The perestroika in the country that began in the mid-1980s also revealed unresolved national problems in the republics and contributed to the creation of nationally oriented clubs and organizations, the beginning of which dates back to this period. The main demands of national organizations at the first stage were: the revival of national languages and cultures, and at the next stage political slogans appeared in the form of granting union status, culminating in the adoption of a Declaration of Sovereignty. Each stage included more cardinal tasks, such as filling sovereignty with real content, the election of the President of the republic, the population census, the study of the Bashkir language in schools of the republic, training and placement of personnel. Environmental problems to one degree or another revived the ethnopolitical situation in the republic and intensified the activities of national associations, moving from one stage to another.

the article, based on documents from the archives of the Novosibirsk and Tomsk regions, as well as the Altai Territory, reflects the strengthening of universities with scientific and pedagogical personnel and the growth of their professional skills. The resolutions of the party meetings of the primary organization of the Tomsk Institute and storage units on the work of the rector's office and the party committee to improve the quality of training specialists, their ideological and political tempering in the light of the requirements of the XXVI Congress of the CPSU were analyzed. As a result, the author comes to the conclusion that the tasks set for staffing medical universities with qualified teaching staff were fulfilled.

against the backdrop of the Cold War, the USSR actively developed military and political relations with Syria, which occupied an advantageous strategic position in the Middle East. Syria played a key role in Moscow's foreign policy, which sought to strengthen its position in the region to counter the anti-Soviet policy pursued by Washington. The diplomatic relations established between the USSR and Syria in the 1950s served as the beginning of a long and fruitful cooperation between Moscow and Damascus, which continued until 2024. Given the uncertain policy of the new Syrian government towards the Russian Federation, the study of the period of establishment of Soviet-Syrian relations remains relevant today. The study will expand knowledge about the strategy of the USSR foreign policy in the Middle East at the beginning of the second half of the 20th century and the struggle of the USSR and the USA for dominance in individual countries of the Middle East region.

this article examines the historical development of Iraq's digital diplomacy from 1990 to 2022, with an emphasis on major stages of digital transformation in diplomacy, the impact of technology on international relations, and Iraq's digital foreign policy strategies. The research aims to examine the growth of Iraq's digital diplomacy, determine its strategic directions, and assess cyber diplomacy's impact on Iraq's international cooperation. The study adopts a qualitative research technique that includes historical analysis, a review of legal frameworks, government policies, and digital diplomacy strategies. It uses sources in Arabic and English, as well as reports from international organizations. The findings indicate that Iraq's digital diplomacy has progressed in stages, from early embrace of digital technologies in the 1990s to active use of cyber diplomacy in the 2020s. While digital diplomacy has increased Iraq's worldwide visibility, difficulties such as cybersecurity threats and infrastructure restrictions persist. Iraq uses digital platforms in bilateral and multilateral diplomatic interactions, although it still relies on international technology help. The findings are relevant for diplomats, international relations experts, cybersecurity specialists, and policymakers involved in digital transformation initiatives.

the article presents a comprehensive analysis of the transformation of the linguistic identity of the Bashkir population from the Soviet period to the present day. The main aim of the study is to identify the key stages in the evolution of language attitudes and to determine the role of institutional, family-based, and digital factors in shaping ethnolinguistic identity. The research objectives included the analysis of statistical and legal data, assessment of youth motivations for studying the Bashkir language, and evaluation of the dynamics of its functioning in educational and domestic settings. The empirical base consists of data from the 2010 and 2021 Russian population censuses and the results of an authorial sociological survey conducted in 2023 in the Republic of Bashkortostan. The methodological framework combines approaches from ethnosociology, historical ethnology, and sociolinguistics. The study reveals a stable trend toward the symbolic use of the Bashkir language, a growing emotional loyalty, and a simultaneous decline in its everyday use. The author argues for a shift in language policy from formal regulation toward the promotion of emotional, digital, and creative engagement. The findings can be applied in the development of regional programs for language preservation, youth education strategies, and intercultural communication practices.

cross-border cooperation between Russia and China, especially in the context of the Amur Region, is a unique phenomenon where geographical proximity is combined with cultural differences. The relevance of the research is due to the need to understand the mechanisms of interaction and mutual influence of cultures in the conditions of the border region. Of particular importance is the study of how the physical proximity of territories is combined with the preservation of the cultural identity of both countries, as well as how new forms of intercultural dialogue are formed in the context of modern geopolitical realities. In the last decade, the features of cultural cooperation have become systemic and are accompanied not only by a demonstration of the traditions of each country, but also by an active acquaintance with the culture of the partner. In particular, direct interaction between the population creates the basis for long-term cooperation between countries, which is of particular importance for border areas. At the same time, the interaction of cultures of the Amur region and the PRC is characterized by a number of differences, including those determined by geographical separation. Bilateral relations are also reflected in the existing well-developed system of mechanisms that make it possible to effectively manage the differences between the cultures of the Amur Region and China. The further development of cultural relations between the Amur Region and the PRC requires increased coordination at all levels of interaction, as well as the development of cultural exchanges as the main form of interaction. Promising areas of cultural interaction are the expansion of the range of joint events, the development of digital formats of cultural interaction, the creation of new platforms for cultural exchange while deepening educational cooperation, as well as the development of cross-border cultural tourism.

Ban?'i Heravi's Shib?n?n?ma and Futuh?t-e Kh?ni are seminal sources for understanding the history of Central Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. However, the chronological order of these texts remains a subject of scholarly debate. To address this question, the present study focuses on the expression of political legitimacy within each work. Through a discourse analysis of B?n???’s portrayal of Mu?ammad Shayb?n? Kh?n (1451-1510), it investigates how shifting notions of sovereignty reflect the evolving needs and aspirations of the early Shaybanid state. The analysis suggests that the Shib?n?n?ma reflects an initial phase of Shaybanid rule, characterized by a reliance on charismatic leadership and tribal alliances. Conversely, the Futuh?t-e Kh?ni portrays a maturing regime seeking centralized governance, legitimized through the incorporation of established Perso-Islamic norms and traditions. This ideological divergence lends support to the suggestion of a relative chronology: namely, that the Shib?n?n?ma's foundational redaction likely predates the Futuh?t-e Kh?ni. Ultimately, this research highlights the intrinsic connection between textual production and the articulation of state ideology during the critical period of Shaybanid consolidation. It further emphasizes the value of political-theological discourse as a framework for understanding these significant historical texts.

after the defeat in World War II, Germany, as the main aggressor, was completely occupied by the victorious countries. The contradictions that arose between them during the outbreak of the Cold War led to the emergence of two German states in 1949. Since then, the two parts of the German people have taken completely different paths. The Federal Republic of Germany has closely linked itself with Western Europe and the United States, while the German Democratic Republic has found itself in the socialist camp. Both Western and eastern Germans began to form their own identity under the influence of various factors, and the differences between them are still felt, despite the fact that Germany was united more than 30 years ago. These differences manifested themselves in lifestyle, values, preferences, etc. In this article, the author examines the influence of the foreign policy factor on the formation of East German identity. First of all, we are talking about the influence of the USSR, but the factor of another Germany (FRG) is also being considered. Various spheres of East German life were touched upon and their connection with the formation of a certain East German identity was shown, as well as the influence of the USSR on these spheres.

this article examines the urban planning innovations implemented during the reign of Peter the Great, which influenced the architectural and spatial development of the cities of the Russian Empire. The historical significance of measures related to the creation of citywide plans, standardization of buildings, and the introduction of mandatory requirements for facades and street infrastructure is substantiated. The impact of these transformations on the further formation of urban space, socio-economic development and cultural image of Russia is assessed. The proposed conclusions are based on an analysis of archival documents, historical evidence, and modern research papers on Peter's reforms.

the article examines the transformation of the criteria of military achievement in the conditions of the First World War through the analysis of the Statute of St. George. The author reveals how the changed nature of the fighting and the mass characterization of the army influenced the practice of awarding awards and the perception of heroism. Based on the analysis of normative documents, memoir literature, front-line correspondence and historical research, shifts in understanding the feat are revealed: from an emphasis on individual valor to recognition of collective courage and moral qualities such as self-sacrifice and initiative. Special attention is paid to the role of the Statute of St. George as an instrument of ideological mobilization and social engineering, reflecting the cultural and political changes of the era. The influence of social, gender and institutional factors on the formation of the hero's image and the practice of awarding is also considered. The scientific novelty of the work lies in an integrated approach to the study of the award system as a reflection of the transformation of military culture and historical memory in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, as well as in identifying socio-cultural and institutional factors influencing the reassessment of individual and collective achievement. The article solves the problem of insufficient attention to the dynamics of the award system in Russian historiography.

the article examines the role of ethnic identity in the process of state formation in South Ossetia. It explores the historical, cultural, and political aspects that contributed to the consolidation of the Ossetian people and the creation of an independent state. Special attention is paid to the key stages of South Ossetia's development, from early history to the modern era. The article also investigates the influence of external factors, such as the policies of Georgia and Russia, on the formation of Ossetian national identity. The research is based on the analysis of historical documents, academic studies, and contemporary political processes. This article examines the role of ethnic identity in the process of state formation in South Ossetia. The introduction contains an analysis of the historical and cultural context in which the Ossetian ethnic community was formed, as well as outlining the main issues and tasks of the study – determining the mechanisms through which ethnic identity influences state processes. The relevance of the topic is justified against the backdrop of contemporary geopolitical transformations accompanied by processes of self-identification and state-building. The research methods are based on an interdisciplinary approach that combines historical-descriptive analysis, comparative methods, sociological surveys, and qualitative content analysis of archival materials. The empirical basis of the study includes both literary sources and documents from international organizations, as well as interviews with representatives of the Ossetian community. This comprehensive approach allows for tracing the evolution of ethnic identity and its impact on political and administrative transformations in the region. The research results demonstrate that the fundamental elements of South Ossetia's ethnic identity have become not only a factor of cultural stability, but also a significant tool for mobilizing the population in the process of nation-state building. Key moments were identified when internal and external challenges stimulated a return to traditional values, thereby contributing to the legitimization of authority and the consolidation of society. Special attention is paid to the role of historical memory, traditions, and symbols that strengthen the sense of community and sustain the aspiration for independence. The discussion of the results highlights the complexity of integrating cultural traditions into modern state institutions, as well as the need for intercultural dialogue to overcome social contradictions. The conclusion summarizes the findings, emphasizing that ethnic identity is an integral component in the process of forming an independent state. The article offers recommendations for further studying issues of national self-determination to deepen the understanding of the interconnection between culture, history, and statehood in the context of modern geopolitical changes.

by analyzing English-language historiographical sources of a marine nature, the article analyzes the degree of coverage of the issue of Navigation Acts as a factor and instrument of trade, economic and political development of England in the XVIII century. The article examines the degree to which the role of Navigation Acts has been studied in the context of Anglo-Saxon civilizational construction, as well as the creation of the British colonial system, which became one of the most developed and large-scale in the Late Modern era in comparison with similar colonial systems of other powers. The article concludes that there are several areas of analysis of the factorial significance of Navigation acts in the context of the trade, economic and political history of England in the 18th century, represented by the areas of "civilizational", "colonial", "historical and comparative". It is also concluded that the role of Navigation Acts has not been sufficiently studied from the point of view of reducing the researchers' analysis towards almost exclusively the Navigation Acts of 1651 and 1660.

the author examines the specifics of financing the Russian army in the last ten years of the reign of Emperor Alexander I. The article examines some important cost items – supplying the army with horses, improving nutrition for lower ranks, and increasing salaries for officers. The author concludes that the army command sought to maintain the combat capability of the army and the Guard, despite the lack of funds. Due to the lack of funds, many of the measures taken were partial. Some financial assistance measures were applied only in individual military units, and not in the entire army. The author concludes that Emperor Nicholas I was forced to solve the problems of financing the army, which he inherited from his brother, Emperor Alexander I.

the article focuses on the analysis of medieval legal sources concerning sumptuary laws in the city of Nuremberg during the 15th century. The article conducts a thorough examination of legislative acts and other sources related to regulating clothing and luxury within the city. Additionally, a comparative analysis is conducted between these sumptuary laws and similar laws in Italian city-states. The article seeks to identify common trends, peculiarities, and differences in legislation regarding sumptuary norms. Furthermore, an attempt is made to uncover the factors and reasons that prompted the emergence of sumptuary laws both in Nuremberg and in Italian cities. This research contributes to understanding the socio-cultural context and the role of sumptuary laws in medieval society.

the article is devoted to the study of the transformation of Kislovodsk in the 19th century from a small settlement near mineral springs into a popular resort and a center of cultural life. The purpose of the work is to study the most important stages of the city's development, including the establishment of the resort infrastructure, the influence of mineral springs, as well as the role of Kislovodsk as a center of cultural attraction. The objectives of the research include the analysis of the development of resort infrastructure in the 19th century, the study of the influence of mineral springs on the formation of Kislovodsk as a medical resort, the consideration of the cultural significance of the city and its influence on the work of famous personalities, as well as the identification of social and economic factors that contributed to the development of the city. Historical documents, archival data, scientific works on the history of resorts and the cultural heritage of the region were used as sources. To solve the tasks set, historical, analytical and comparative methods were used, thanks to which it is possible to consider the development of Kislovodsk in the context of socio-economic and cultural processes of the 19th century. The results of the study demonstrate how natural resources, government policy and cultural processes have contributed to the creation of a unique resort space. The practical significance of the work lies in the possibility of using its findings to develop strategies for the development of modern resort areas, preserve the historical and cultural heritage of Kislovodsk, and popularize balneological tourism in the Caucasian Mineral Waters. The novelty of the research is reflected in an integrated approach that combines medical, social and cultural aspects of the city's development. The work contributes to the study of the role of resorts in the history of Russia and opens up prospects for comparative studies with European counterparts.

the Karachay-Balkarian people have their own ancient history and distinctive culture. Man does not live by bread alone. Interest in the past of one's people, their customs and traditions, and ties with one's fellow countrymen and neighbors is what distinguishes a person who is truly devoted to his Homeland from someone who is not worthy of having a fatherland. In ethnography, everyday life is usually understood as the traditional forms of people's daily life passed down from one descendant to another. First of all, they include people's relationships both during work and outside of work, behavior in public places. In other words, these customs and traditions dictate to people the rules of behavior in a particular case of life. Farming refers to material culture, and not only the results obtained from economic activity (products of agriculture, cattle breeding, handicrafts, etc.) are considered, but also the labor process itself, the participation of the person himself in it, forms of farming and methods of management, and at the same time social relations related to farming. The study of the traditional economic life of the Karachay-Balkarians remains one of the urgent problems in Russian historical science. This study examines the role of labor customs and rituals in the economic activities of the Karachay-Balkarians in the pre-reform period. The author focuses on the main trends in the development of cattle breeding, hunting and agriculture, as well as the influence of labor customs and rituals on them. At the same time, the article shows how the main branches of the economy are reflected in Karachay-Balkar folklore.

the article examines the legal regulation of begging in 14th–15th century Europe, with a special focus on the Nuremberg Begging Ordinance of 1478. The study provides a comparative analysis of legislative acts from England, France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire, revealing common trends and regional peculiarities in addressing begging. Particular attention is paid to the legal nature of the Nuremberg Ordinance, which combined Christian principles of charity with bureaucratic control mechanisms, marking an important stage in the development of European social policy. The research demonstrates how medieval cities responded to the challenges of mass poverty caused by epidemics and economic crises, and how these solutions influenced the formation of modern social protection systems.