Problemy Dalnego Vostoka
“Problemy Dalnego Vostoka” (eng. “Far Eastern Studies”) is an academic and socio-political journal founded in March 1972.
The frequency of the Journal is 6 issues per year.
Founders
- Russian Academy of Sciences
- Institute of China and Contemporary Asia of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Publisher
- Russian Academy of Sciences
The journal is published under the supervision of the RAS Department of Historical and Philological Sciences (OIFN RAS).
About the journal
The journal gives information on the history, culture, politics and economy of the Asia-Pacific countries, offering the readers an opportunity to monitor the development of international cooperation, bilateral and multilateral relations in this dynamic and strategically important region of the world, which includes – in addition to the leaders of the modern world economy China and Japan, rapidly growing India, Vietnam and other ASEAN countries – Siberia and the Russian Far East with their colossal potential.
Among the authors of the journal are well-known political and public figures, prominent academicians, government officials, experts and researchers from Russia and foreign countries.
According to experts who constantly read the journal, it manages to combine political relevance, constant search for new ideas and new methodology and careful adherence to the best traditions of the Russian oriental studies, avoid being ideologized and preserve academicism. A wide range of issues under consideration, the publication of materials that are diverse in thematic and conceptual terms allow the publication to interest a wide variety of readers, each of whom finds something informative in it.
Since 2002, some articles of the journal have been translated into English and published as a separate periodical (“Far Eastern Affairs”, ISSN 0206-149X).
Media registration certificate: № 0110158 от 04.02.1993
Current Issue
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No 2 (2025)
Politics
Taiwan’s Representative Offices: Evolution, Functions, and Their Role in Contemporary Diplomacy
Abstract
The article reveals the features of the organizational structure, functioning and country presence of Taiwan's trade and cultural missions, which play the role of one of the main instruments for ensuring international cooperation in the context of the "one China" principle consistently pursued by Beijing. The article analyzes the specific international position of Taiwan, conditioned by its limited recognition on the world stage, which forces it to resort to flexible and innovative approaches in diplomacy to maintain its external relations. Special attention is paid to the process of historical formation of the institution of missions, their evolution, functions and features of work in ensuring trade, cultural and economic ties of Taiwan with other countries are analyzed. The main functions of these missions, their legal and political limitations, as well as their organizational features are also considered. The article highlights the so-called "red lines" established by China, which limit Taiwan's international space and impose additional restrictions on the activities of its missions. Based on specific examples from recent practice, cases of opening and renaming Taiwan's missions in such countries as Lithuania, Somaliland and Fiji are considered. These cases illustrate how Beijing uses diplomatic and economic pressure to limit the expansion of Taiwan's international presence. In addition, the article examines the trend observed in recent years of an increase in the number of Taiwanese missions in Western Europe and the United States, accompanied by increased pressure from the PRC on the international community and Taiwan regarding the functioning of the missions, which reflects the ongoing confrontation between the two sides on the diplomatic front.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):9-26
9-26
Technological Rivalry between China and the United States: the Clash of Xi Jinping's Digital Initiatives and Trumponomics 2.0
Abstract
The end of the first quarter of the 21st century became a landmark stage in the technological rivalry between China and the United States in the context of increasing global digitalization and the development of the global digital economy, represented primarily by the largest Chinese and American IT companies, when artificial intelligence began to be positioned not only as a digital technology that imitates some human cognitive abilities, but also a means of governing the world. The article presents the results of a study of the initiatives of the Chairman of the People's Republic of China Xi Jinping in the context of the development of the country's digital economy as a new high-tech sector of the economy, represented by such Chinese IT companies as DeepSeek, Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation, Alibaba group, Huawei, ZTE, Baidu, Tencent and Lenovo. Their achievements in the field of the global digital economy were the development of fifth-generation communications (5G), the production of the latest semiconductors and chips (7-nm chip), humanoid robots, and the Chinese artificial intelligence DeepSeek-R1. The analysis of Xi Jinping's digital initiatives to turn China into a cybernetic superpower by 2035 is carried out within the framework of the institutional foundations: "Made In China 2025", "Digital Silk Road", decisions of the 20th CPC Congress, "Strategic Plan for Building a Scientific and Technological Power (2021–2035)" of the PRC Government. The article defines the policy of the 47th US President D. Trump, which has already received the name Trumponomics 2.0 as new digital challenges to China and the world, the "artificial intelligence race". D. Trump's new initiatives include the priority development of artificial intelligence, for which it is planned to invest half a trillion dollars in the near future, as well as unprecedented cryptocurrency mining, turning the United States into the "cryptocurrency capital of the world". D. Trump's policy is aimed at containing the US competitor in the field of AI — China. The conducted analysis of Xi Jinping's digital initiatives and Trumponomics 2.0 allowed us to define them as two opposite models of global digitalization and development of the global digital economy.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):27-42
27-42
Economics
Attracting Foreign Direct Investment into China's Economy
Abstract
The article provides a general description of attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) into the China’s economy, including the dynamics of their attraction over the years of reforms, geographical and sectoral structure, and regional location. It is noted that the participation of enterprises with foreign capital in China's commodity exports and imports is gradually decreasing, but remains significant. The author highlights the factors of growth in attracting FDI in 2020–2022 and the reasons for the slowdown in their inflow to the China’s economy in 2023–2024. It is noted that, in general, FDI does not play a significant role in China as a source of capital investment in fixed assets. For China, attracting foreign capital is important as a channel for attracting new technologies. The article outlines the key measures taken by the Chinese authorities in accordance with the Action Plan to Stabilize Foreign Investment for 2025, to stimulate the attraction of FDI in advanced industries of mechanical engineering, instrumentation, microelectronics, semiconductors, green energy, telecommunications, information technology, healthcare and education, and scientific research. Despite the decline in FDI inflows, China remains a major global recipient. The internal economic and logistical conditions for the implementation of the strategy of attracting FDI In China have been created and are working. However, external factors may hinder the implementation of the strategy in the future, namely the aggravation of contradictions with the United States, the slowdown in global economic growth, and disruption of international product value chains.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):43-55
43-55
The State and Prospects of Corn Production Development in China: Analysis of Grain Balance
Abstract
Corn, as one of the primary cereal crops alongside rice and wheat, plays a crucial role in the economy of the People’s Republic of China and serves as a strategic resource for advancing the country’s agricultural sector. Corn grain is utilized not only for food production but also as livestock feed, which is especially vital for the growth of animal husbandry in the country. Additionally, corn is extensively used across various industrial sectors In China. Recently, China has emerged as the second-largest producer of corn globally and the largest importer of this agricultural crop, underscoring its importance in the nation’s agricultural economy. This article presents a comprehensive study of corn production, consumption, import, and export In China from 2000 to 2021. Special attention is given to the geographical distribution of corn-growing areas, which helps to understand which regions of the country play a key role in its production. The analysis shows that over the past two decades, corn production In China has significantly increased, which is associated with the adoption of modern agricultural technologies, increased yields, and the expansion of cultivated areas. However, the growth in domestic consumption and demand for corn, driven by the development of animal husbandry and industry, has led to an increase in the import of this agricultural crop, underscoring China's dependence on external markets. As a result of the study, key trends and prospects for the dynamics of the resource balance and use of corn in the People's Republic of China have been identified.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):56-70
56-70
Territorial Organization of the Logistics Industry in the Countries of Southeast Asia
Abstract
The article examines geographical features of the logistics complex in the countries of Southeast Asia in relation to the industries that generate the greatest income from the export of goods. The economic and geographical factors influencing logistics development (transit location, natural resources, economic diversification, and access to maritime routes) are considered. The significance of maritime transport is emphasized, as it dominates international shipments and is connected to key port cities that serve as hubs in supply chains. The analysis also takes into account the interconnection of logistics centers with industrial zones and raw material bases, which contributes to cost reduction and optimization of goods flows. In addition, the study considers regional differences in logistics infrastructure, determined by the level of economic development, geographical conditions, and government policies in the transport sector. The research results demonstrate the diversity of supply chains depending on the level of economic development. Industrially developed states focus on high-tech and material-intensive products (electronics, automobiles), whereas less developed countries export raw materials and technologically simple manufactured goods (textiles, agricultural products). Special attention is given to the methodology of quantitative and qualitative typologization of logistics centers, based on indicators of port cargo turnover, logistics infrastructure density, and corporate structure. Six types of centers are identified, four of which are determined by the magnitude and ratio of quantitative indicators, while the other two types are distinguished by qualitative characteristics reflecting their connection with port cities.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):71-85
71-85
The Republic of Korea on the International Nuclear Technology Market
Abstract
The Republic of Korea nowadays is one of the world leaders in nuclear energy use and nuclear technology development. The government of President Yun Seok-yeol (2022–2024) set a goal to not only develop nuclear energy within the country but to also export the technologies internationally and to become one of the leading exporters. However, so far little research has been done on the topic. This article aims to address that gap. It gives an overview of the history of atomic energy in South Korea and traces the key elements of the state policies in this area. It points out particular characteristics of South Korea’s nuclear technologies and outlines the possible issues with their export internationally. It also explores South Korea’s strategies and prospects in the international nuclear technology markets. The article showcases that the Yoon government has from the start intensified its diplomatic efforts to promote the Republic of Korea’s nuclear technology and that the current international situation and sanctions against Russia have become an asset in achieving the government’s goals and diversifying its potential international partners. It is supposed that even in case of a power change in South Korea the line of promoting its nuclear technologies internationally will continue as part of the country’s soft power strategy.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):86-97
86-97
State and society
China's Ending of “Zero Covid” Policy: Demographic Consequences
Abstract
The Chinese government's decision to end the "zero covid" policy in late 2022 resulted in an explosive surge in COVID-19 cases. The article assesses the impact of this decision on the life and health of the Chinese population and considers the scale and causes of human losses. Based on scientific research, as well as information from official sources, the assumptions about the insufficient level of vaccination of the Chinese population and the ineffectiveness of Chinese vaccines are refuted. A review of the main studies of Chinese COVID-19 vaccines confirms their effectiveness in preventing death, comparable to the world's leading vaccines. Data are provided on the widespread use of Chinese vaccines to vaccinate the population of other countries. The author relies on studies of the effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines against the main strains of COVID during the period when the Chinese government was actively winding down the course of strict restrictive measures and large-scale testing. The set of reasons that led to an increase in mortality among the population as a result of the abrupt cancellation of the "zero covid" policy In China is shown, and attention is also focused on China's insufficient preparedness for the abrupt cancellation of this policy. Within the framework of the scientific research and statistical estimates of the number of deaths during the COVID-19 pandemic in the country considered in the article, including the calculations undertaken by the author, a conclusion is made about the effectiveness of the Chinese government's policy during the pandemic as a whole compared to other countries. It is noted that China's persistent, active fight against the spread of the new virus has not received either due assessment and support from the world community, or the introduction of similar maximum restrictive measures in other countries against the spread of COVID-19, which has led to large human casualties among the peoples of the Earth.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):98-115
98-115
View point
The East Asian Development Model and Its Country Submodels: General and Specific (Based on the Example of China)
Abstract
In the presented article, from the methodological standpoint of a retrospective system analysis, a study of the general and special characteristics of the East Asian development model (EADM) is carried out, taking into account the relevant experience of modern China. In the introduction of the article, the author's understanding of the economic development model of a particular region of the world and its member countries is given, as well as the relevance and importance of a system analysis of national adaptation and scaling in the PRC as one of the largest countries in the world (the first in terms of national economy, the second in terms of population and the third in terms of territory size). The main part of the article presents the author's version of the periodization and evolution of China's economic and social development strategy in the second half of the 20th — first quarter of the 21st centuries. The general features and national specifics of the institutional regulation of the transition of the Chinese economy from extensive to intensive growth, from the industrial to the post-industrial stage, from the imitation to the innovative type of development are studied. The mechanisms of public-private partnership (PPP) have been studied, including the specifics of government relations with corporate, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). In the second section of the main part of the article, generalizing conclusions are formulated concerning the constructive advantages of the EADM, explaining the generally successful catching-up and subsequent outstripping development of a number of countries and economies using certain variants of this model. In particular, it was stated that the systems of state and institutional regulation of the economy created within the framework of the EADM not only ensure higher rates of economic growth at the stage of industrialization than in the West, but also the subsequent faster change of stages of economic development, including the transition to modern efficient and innovative growth, the transformation of catching-up development into advanced development. The most common disadvantages and problems of the EADM are also characterized, in particular, regarding the corrupt fusion of power structures and business, as well as the methods used and ways to overcome them.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):116-130
116-130
Russian sinology
Knowing How to Leave Gracefully. In Memory of the USSR Ambassador to the PRC (1970–1978) Vasily Sergeyevich Tolstikov
Abstract
In this article, the author describes events that took place in the mid-1970s of the last century. At that time, he worked as a translator of Chinese and English and accompanied the USSR Ambassador to China, V.S. Tolstikov, to official receptions held during visits to Beijing by highranking foreign delegations. Following the XX Congress of the CPSU in 1956, relations between the two socialist states had significantly deteriorated, which also impacted the work of diplomatic missions. At the height of the Cultural Revolution, amid rampant anti-Soviet propaganda, these events were often used by the Chinese side to launch crude attacks on Moscow's foreign and domestic policies. In such cases, the ambassador faced difficult decisions: either to ignore Chinese aggressive attacks against your country, maintaining composure in the face of its absurdity, or to demonstratively leave the event, thereby placing the Chinese hosts in an uncomfortable position in front of the arriving guests. V.S. Tolstikov performed such demarches artistically, gaining sincere respect in the diplomatic corps. Several decades later, at the summit of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, as part of the Russian official delegation, the author finds himself back in the same hall of the National People's Congress, where he witnessed the courageous behavior of the Soviet ambassador. But this is a completely different era, an era of unprecedented level of Russian—Chinese cooperation, to which Soviet Ambassador Vasily Sergeyevich Tolstikov had meaningfully contributed.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):131-139
131-139
Military build-up
The Views of Chinese Military Analysts on the Strategic Aspects of Deterrence
Abstract
The article is devoted to the peculiarities of interpreting China's deterrence strategy in the context of global competition, primarily with the United States. The author examines the key features of the Chinese theorists' approach, which differs from the Western concept of deterrence. Unlike the traditional Western understanding, which focuses on dissuading the enemy from aggression, the Chinese strategy includes deterrence and coercion, considering them as interrelated elements. The paper examines in detail the approaches of Chinese authors on three main types of deterrence: nuclear, space and information. At the same time, the author notes that these types are interconnected with each other — the nuclear potential serves as the basis for a retaliatory strike, while the remaining elements provide strategic flexibility. Special attention is paid to the approaches of Chinese theorists to the importance of strategic weapons, cyber and space countermeasures, as well as the integration of military and non-military instruments into a single system of influence. The article examines the evolution of Chinese military doctrine, including the change in approaches after the reforms of the PLA in 2015. The author concludes that China's deterrence strategy is aimed not only at preventing conflict, but also at achieving specific political goals, which makes it a flexible instrument of international policy. For China, deterrence is not an end in itself, but a dynamic process combining a show of force, manipulation of an opponent's perception, and adaptation to changing threats, which allows for flexible influence on the international situation in the interests of national policy. In the context of the global redistribution of forces, the concept of deterrence, which has been formed in the scientific and military discourse of the PRC, plays a key role in ensuring China's national security, as well as has a constructive impact on international stability.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):140-153
140-153
Military-Political Relations between the Republic of Korea and the United States at the Present Stage
Abstract
The article analyzes the content of military-political cooperation between the Republic of Korea (ROK) and the United States in 2024 from the point of view of its compliance with allied obligations on mutual defense, countering the North Korean nuclear missile threat and ensuring peace in the Indo-Pacific region (IPR), outlined in the Washington Declaration adopted in 2023. The allies took measures to strengthen the extended deterrence system, including the development of new conceptual documents related to nuclear and strategic planning, as well as the implementation of large-scale simulation and field exercises. Consistent efforts have been made to extend the scope of bilateral activities beyond the Korean Peninsula (KP) to the entire IPR. The allies acted from the position of a global comprehensive alliance responsible for maintaining regional security. At the same time, their joint criticism of Beijing regarding its maritime policy, as well as of Russia in connection with its increasing scale of military-political cooperation with the DPRK, has been expressed on regular basis. In general, 2024 can be perceived as a cloudless period of giving the relations of the ROK and the United States new qualitative characteristics of a "nuclear" and "global" alliance. These elements were built on the allied basis in the absence of any obstacles in the form of issues of cost sharing for the maintenance of the American Forces in the ROK and other problems that had previously significantly affected the dynamics of military-strategic cooperation. Taking into account the results of the past year, the article analyzes the prospects for the further development of the South Korean-American military-political alliance in 2025.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):154-166
154-166
History
Modern Chinese Historiography of Russian-Chinese Medical Relations in the Early 20th Century
Abstract
This article examines contemporary Chinese scholarship on Russian-Chinese medical relations during the early 20th century, focusing on the pneumonic plague epidemic in Manchuria from 1910 to 1911. This epidemic represented a pivotal moment for medical collaboration between the two nations. The authors highlight that this cooperation emerged within a complex geopolitical framework, influenced by foreign intervention and modernization efforts. Chinese researchers are particularly attentive to how Western medicine was adapted to fit traditional Chinese practices, while also critiquing the colonial policies enacted by foreign powers, including Russia. The research is categorized into several thematic areas: traditional Chinese medicine In Russia, the history of healthcare in Northeast China, the effects of epidemics on medical reforms, and the overall history of Chinese medicine. Moreover, the article addresses the methodological differences between Russian and Chinese historians, which stem from fundamental perspectives, language barriers, and limited access to archival materials. The authors illustrate the intricate dynamics of cultural interaction, such as varying strategies for epidemic management and the influence of Russian medical initiatives alongside the prevailing political context on the development of China's healthcare system. While Chinese scholars have historically criticized the Russian medical presence, often interpreting it through the lens of sovereignty, recent research is beginning to shift towards a more nuanced analysis that acknowledges cooperation and shared contributions to epidemic control. Therefore, the article provides a comprehensive perspective on medical diplomacy, its cultural ramifications, and its role in mitigating political tensions between the two countries.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):167-181
167-181
Scientific events
Annual All-Russian Conference “Modern Chinese State” 2025
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):182-192
182-192
XXIX Conference of Korean Studies in Russia and CIS Countries
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):193-199
193-199
Book reviews
Book Review: Malyavin V.V. Chinese World: Roots and Crown. Moscow: RIPOL classic, 2024. 775 p.
Problemy Dalnego Vostoka. 2025;(2):200-202
200-202