Whey in 3D Printing: A Scoping Review

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Abstract

Introduction: The issue of dairy whey utilization remains relevant despite advancements in modern processing technologies, such as membrane technologies, biotechnological approaches, and preservation methods. Global whey production exceeds 160 million tons annually and continues to grow, necessitating new solutions within the circular economy framework. In recent years, Industry 4.0 technologies, including 3D printing (3DP), have emerged as promising tools for processing dairy by-products. However, adapting whey protein products for 3DP requires further investigation of their properties and modification methods.Purpose: This scoping review aimed to analyze the potential and current applications of whey protein products as components of 3DP inks.Materials and Methods: The review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA-ScR guidelines. A literature review was conducted using ScienceDirect, Scopus, and PubMed (2010–2025) with a detailed search strategy. VosViewer was used for thematic analysis of the research field.Results: Analysis of 56 selected sources revealed that whey protein components (76% of cases involving WPI) are actively studied as ingredients for 3DP inks. Their potential applications span food production, including functional and personalized nutrition (e.g., for individuals with dysphagia), as well as biomedicine, tissue engineering, and the chemical industry. Research primarily focuses on the rheological, textural, and microstructural characteristics of 3DP materials, alongside modification methods, including adjusting ink composition, pre-3DP processing (such as pH regulation, heat, and mechanical treatment), and post-printing techniques (such as drying, carbonization, and microwave treatment).Conclusion: The review confirms the promise of whey proteins in 3DP materials. To advance research, the authors recommend systematizing knowledge on key components combined with whey proteins, predictive modeling of optimal formulations based on intermolecular interactions and functional properties, and integrating other whey-derived ingredients, such as hydrolysates, into 3DP applications.

About the authors

Ekaterina Ivanovna Bolshakova

All-Russian Dairy Research Institute

Email: ekaterina.bolshakova.ac@yandex.ru
ORCID iD: 0000-0002-8427-0387
SPIN-code: 9732-9017

Natasha Poklar Ulrih

University of Ljubljana

Email: natasa.poklar@bf.uni-lj

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