Morphodynamics and morpotectonics of the varzuga river mouth area (terskiy coast of the white sea) in the late glacial and holocene

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Abstract

The Late- and post-glacial history of the development of the White Sea coastal zone in the area of the Varzuga River mouth is considered as a result of the interaction of endogenous and exogenous factors of coastal morpholithogenesis. Based on geomorphological investigations, study of Holocene deposits by lithostratigraphic, diatom and radiocarbon analyses, as well as collection and analysis of published data, new results on the area’s relief development for ~13 cal ka BP have been obtained. The features of the regional hierarchical morphostructure and local post-glacial tectonics of the territory — the spatial relationships of blocks and the speed of vertical movements – were determined. The superimposed linear Nizhnevarzugskaya depression, which determined the configuration of the Varzuga River estuary in the late and postglacial time, was identified for the first time. The influence of the spatial ratio of blocks and differentiated postglacial uplift on the coastal morpholithogenesis was established. The course of changes in the relative sea level (RSL), development conditions and morphodynamics of the open coast and the estuary of the Varzuga River were reconstructed and new data on the rhythms of coastal morpholithogenesis processes (coastal, estuarine, and aeolian) obtained. Three stages of the coastal zone development were identified, corresponding to regional rhythms of changes in the relative sea level and climate: (I) Late Glacial transgression and Early Holocene regression (~12–9.8 cal ka BP), (II) Middle Holocene Tapes transgression (7.8–4.9 cal ka BP), (III) Late Holocene regression (after 4.9 cal ka BP). The upper marine boundary of the Late Glacial transgression is traced at the elevation of ~54–55 m a. s. l. to the west of the Nizhnevaruzgskaya depression, — ~39–40 m a. s. l. to the east of it, and — 22–25 m a. s. l. in the depression. The shores of lower morphostructural blocks were probably blocked by dead ice up until ~10.2–9.8 cal ka BP. During the Tapes transgression, the RSL reached a maximum (~7.8–7.6 cal ka BP; ~20 m a. s. l.), and by 4.9 cal ka BP fall to ~15 m a. s. l. The prevailing directions of sediment fluxes, winds and wave approach became similar to those of today. However, the main source of the coastal zone sedimentary supply was the erosion of glaciofluvial sediments and the input of sands from the seabed. In the interval of ~4.9–1.7 cal ka BP, the RSL decreased to ~5 m a. s. l. The sediment runoff of the Varzuga River became the main source of feeding the coastal zone.

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About the authors

T. Yu. Repkina

Institute of Geography RAS; FSBI VNIIOkeanologya

Author for correspondence.
Email: t-repkina@yandex.ru
Russian Federation, Moscow; St. Petersburg

N. E. Zaretskaya

Institute of Geography RAS; Geological Institute RAS; FSBI VNIIOkeanologya

Email: n_zaretskaya@inbox.ru
Russian Federation, Moscow; Moscow; St. Petersburg

S. V. Shvarev

Institute of Geography RAS; Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth RAS

Email: shvarev@ifz.ru
Russian Federation, Moscow; Moscow

N. N. Lugovoy

Lomonosov Moscow State University; Institute of Geography RAS

Email: lugovoy-n@yandex.ru

Faculty of Geography

Russian Federation, Moscow; Moscow

A. R. Alyautdinov

Lomonosov Moscow State University

Email: ali_alia@mail.ru

Faculty of Geography

Russian Federation, Moscow

O. S. Shilova

Lomonosov Moscow State University

Email: o.olyunina@mail.ru

Faculty of Geography

Russian Federation, Moscow

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2. Fig. 1. Location of the study area (а) and factual material (б, в). Areas: 1 — regional morphotectonic analysis and identifying ancient coastlines on the base of remote sensing data; 2 — field work, detailed morphotectonic and morpholithodynamic mapping; 3 — unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) survey; 4 — lines of trigonometric leveling profiles and their numbers; positions of sections and boreholes and their numbers: 5 — this work, 6 — (Zaretskaya, Repkina, 2015), 7 — (Elina et al., 2005), 8 — (Agafonova et al., 2020), 9 — (Repkina et al., 2022); 10 — (Ilyashuk et al., 2005), 11–12 — (Koshechkin et al., 1973): sections of Late Glacial and early Holocene deposits (11 — varved clays, 12 — sands, sandy silts, clays), 13 — (Lunkka et al., 2018), 14 — (Korsakova et al., 2019; Zaretskaya et al., 2022), 15 — (Timireva et al., 2022). Geographical background: (а) — (White Sea ..., 2022), (б, в) — (EtoMesto..., 2022).

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3. Fig. 2. Regional morphotectonic pattern of the Varzuga lower reaches. (а) — lineaments identified by the results of analysis of the satellite images Landsat ETM+ and the digital elevation model ArcticDEM; (б) — morphotectonic zoning; (в) — the compare of the main morphotectonic elements with faults identified by geological and geophysical methods. 1 — morpholineaments; 2 — morphoisohypses (color background with height gradation; at 10-meter intervals); 3 — isobates; hierarchy of morpholineaments: 4 — 300–200 km, 5 — 200–100 km, 6 — 100–50 km, 7 — 50–25 km (Shvarev, 2022); the boundaries between local (<25 km) morphotectonic blocks: 8 — of equal heights (without amplitude), 9 — of different heights (with the supposed vertical displacements); regional morphotectonic blocks: 10 — Babozerskaya step (I), 11 — Primorskaya step (II), 12 –Belomorskaya step (III); borders: 13 — of the regional morphotectonic blocks, 14 — of the Nizhnevarzugskaya estuary depression; 15 — the Nizhnevarzugskaya estuary depression (НД): А — the upper segment, Б — the middle segment, В — the lower segment; faults: 16 — from the geological survey data (Selivanovskaya, Vrachinskaya, 1976): a — tectonic contacts, б — mylonitization zones, 17 — from summarizing of geological and geophysical data, by (Shenkman, 1991), 18 — by (Mitrofanov, 2001): a — main, б — secondary, 19 — by (Bogdanov et al., 2001): a — main, б — secondary; 20 — by (Baluev et al., 2012): a — main, normal faults, non-active, б — the same, activated, в — others with unspecified kinematics.

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4. Fig. 3. Morphotectonic pattern (а) and relief structure (б) of the Varzuga River area. (а) — 1 — elementary morpholineaments; local morpholineament zones separating blocks: 2 — of the same height, 3 — of different heights (with the suppposed vertical displacements); 4 — the border of the Nizhnevarzugskaya estuary depression; 5 — the assumed boundaries of blocks within it; 6 — the border of the Primorsky and Belomorskaya steps; the main blocks of the Nizhnevarzugskaya depression: 7 — Western (A), 8 — Eastern (B), 9 — Valley (C), 10 — Coastal (D), 11 — Estuarine (E); 12 — elements of the hydrographic network; 13 — isohypses: a — 5 m, b — 10 m. (б) — 1 — boundaries of surfaces of glacial and glaciofluvial genesis; 2 — boundaries of terraced surfaces of various genesis and/or marine terraces at heights less than 55 m; back seam of alluvial-marine and alluvial terraces at heights: 3 — 10–16 m, 4 — less than 10 m; 5 — boundaries of areas of intensive wind blow. Numbers in italics — height above sea level (m). Genetic types of shores: 6 — abrasion and abrasion-accumulative, 7 — accumulative. Directions: 8 — alongshore sediment flows, 9 — transverse flows, 10 — runoff flow of the river Varzuga. The position of sections and boreholes (black figure in gray contour — age of the peat base, cal ka BP): 11 — this work, 12 — (Zaretskaya, Repkina, 2015), 13 — (Elina et al., 2005), 14 — (Agafonova et al., 2020), 15 — (Repkina et al., 2022), 16 — (Timireva et al., 2022). Rose diagram: (I) — prevailing wind directions and speed (m/s) and (II) — directions of approach of waves according to HMS Kashkarantsy (Atlas…, 2022). The black outline shows the position of fig. 4.

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5. Fig. 4. Relief of the junction zone of A, C and E blocks on the right bank of the Varzuga River. Relief types (1–12). Glacial relief: not changed by coastal-marine processes: 1 — swampy moraine plains (≥35–40 m a. s. l.), 2–4 — swampy terrace-like surfaces with individual hills and ridges of glacial origin (at altitudes: 2 — 35–40, 3 — 30–35, 4 — 25–30 m a. s. l.); altered by aeolian processes: 5 — kame terraces and kames, overblown, and swamped in depressions (25–40 m a. s. l.); altered by coastal processes: 6 — kame surfaces smoothed in the coastal zone and overblown (20–23 m a. s. l.). Coastal-marine relief. Marine terraces: 7 — swampy, with coastal ridges (up to 0.5 m), covered with peat (at altitudes of 20–23 m a. s. l.); 8 — with significantly overblown coastal ridges (up to 1.5 m), dry (at altitudes of 15–20 m a. s. l.); 9–10 — with overblown coastal ridges (up to 0.5, rarely up to 1 m) and slightly swampy depressions between them (at heights: 9 — 15–20, 10 — 10–14 m a. s. l.). Alluvial-marine terraces: 11 — marshy, with ridges and oxbow depressions (at altitudes of 10–16 m above sea level). Eolian relief: 12 — active dunes (25–35 m a. s. l.). Complexes and separate landforms. Raised coastlines: 13 — mostly accumulative; 14 — mainly abrasion; 15 — abrasion-erosion; 16 — individual coastal ridges; 17 — ridges on the kame surface (relative height up to 7 m). 18 — geomorphological boundaries. The arrows show the direction of stream flow. The position of the sections and boreholes (black figure in gray contour — age of the peat base, cal ka BP): 19 — this work, 20 — (Zaretskaya, Repkina, 2015), 21 — (Elina et al., 2005), 22 — (Agafonova et al., 2020), 23 — (Timireva et al., 2022).

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6. Fig. 5. Integrated sections of the Holocene deposits within the A, C and E blocks on the right bank of the Varzuga River.  Legend: 1 — peat; 2 — sand with charcoal fragments; 3 — sand; 4 — sandy silt; 5 — silt; 6 — till; 7 — 14С age (cal. BP); sedimentary setting according to diatom analysis: 8 — coastal-marine, 9 — transitional from coastal-marine to freshwater, 10 — freshwater; sedimentary setting based upon the plant macrofossil analysis (Elina et al., 2005; Tiimireva et al., 2022): 11 — lacustrine, 12 — palustral. Block edges and location of the sections see on fig. 3.

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7. Fig. 6. Image of the relief of the coast in the area of Cape Korabl on Orthophoto mosaic (а) and DEM (б). The blue outline shows the boundary of the UAV survey area. The red lines are the positions of the profiles built according to the DSM (A–D) and trigonometric leveling data (E). The numbers indicate: 1 — tidal littoral, 2 — beach, 3 — the largest abrasion cliffs, 4 — some coastal ridges. Geographic background — image Yandex-Sputnik.

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8. Fig. 7. Transverse profiles of the coast in the area of Cape Korabl, built according to DSM (A–D) and trigonometric leveling data (E) (see the position of the profiles in fig. 6). Black arrows show the foot of abrasion cliffs and concave bends of the profile, white arrows show large coastal ridges (digital symbol — average height, m a. s. l.).

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9. Fig. 8. Transverse profile of the coast in the Podturok area, built according to trigonometric leveling data (profile F in fig. 1, (в)). White arrows show areas of change in the height of coastal ridges (figure – average height, m a. s. l.).

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10. Fig. 9. Terrace sediment sections 7–8 m above sea level in the Chevruy area. Legend: 1 — sand; 2 — peat; 3 — peaty sand; 4 — charcoal fragments; 5 — brickstone shards; 6 — 14C sampling site and date. See the position of the sections in fig. 1, (в).

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11. Fig. 10. Climatic conditions (a–б), changes in the relative sea level (в) and coastal relief-forming processes (г) in the estuarine area of the Varzuga River in the Late Glacial and Holocene. (а) — The duration of the ice period in the sea (months) (Novichkova, 2008).  (б) — Changes in the average air temperature in July (°C) and effective Humidity in the Varzuga River area according to the analysis of the bottom sediments of the Lake Berkut, see fig. 1, (б) (Ilyashuk et al., 2005). Modern temperature values are marked with black arrows. The dynamics of effective humidification is shown by colored lines: green — high, yellow — low.  (в) — RSL position indicators. Dates from sediments accumulated: 1–2 — above mean sea level (1 — peat, 2 — gyttia); 3 — in the interval of tidal fluctuations or in post-isolation basins with occasional splashes of salt water (peat); 4 — indicators of the activity of coastal eolian processes (sandy peat) (number — section/sample). The color of the icons (1–4) shows the position of the samples within the morphostructural blocks (A, C, E). RSL change curve: 5 — confirmed by dating of deposits, 6 — estimated; 7 — estimated interval of RSL fluctuations; 8 — the position of the ancient coastlines according to the data of instrumental measurements and field observations, digital number — the height above sea level; 9 — stages of RSL change according to (Korsakova, 2022): I — Late Glacial transgression; II — glacioisostatic regression; Middle Holocene transgression: III — beginning, IV — end; V — Late Holocene regression.  (г) — Rhythms of coastal relief-forming processes. Activation of: 10 — accumulative coastal processes, 11 — alluvial-marine accumulation in river estuaries, 12 — aeolian processes; subsidence: 13 — aeolian processes. The sign (*) indicates data (Timireva et al., 2022).

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12. Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of the coastal development of the Varzuga River mouth in the Late Glacial and Holocene: (a) — Late Glacial transgression maximum, (б–в) — Middle Holocene transgression, (г) – Late Holocene regression, (д) — modern conditions (black number — time slice, cal. ka BP; blue – sea level position, m (Baltic system); red — duration of the ice-free period, months (Novichkova, 2008; Polyakova et al., 2014; Novichkova, Polyakova, 2008).  Genetic types of coasts (1–8): 1 — icy, created by thermal and mechanical action of water masses, 2 — predominantly abrasional-denudational created in terrigenous rocks by processes of physical weathering and weakened impact of waves, 3–6 — created by wave processes (3 — mainly abrasion, worked out in terrigenous rocks and boulder loams, 4 — abrasion-accumulative, with cliffs carved in terrigenous rocks and boulder-pebble beaches, 5 — abrasion-accumulative, with erosion scarps, worked out in sandy glaciofluvial deposits, and sandy beaches, 6 — accumulative, with sandy beaches and foredunes), 7 — predominantly erosive-accumulative, created by runoff and tidal currents, in larger areas — with the participation of waves, 8 — separate beach ridges. Elements of lithodynamics (9–12). Direction of sediment flows: 9 — alongshore, 10 — transverse; 11 — runoff flow of the Varzuga River, 12 — sediment flow from the melting ice. Relief types and geomorphological landscapes (13–16): 13 – areas of dead ice distribution (areal deglaciation), 14 — glacial and glaciofluvial plains and terraced surfaces without signs of wave processing, 15 — marine terraces, 16 — alluvial-marine terraces. Landforms and landscapes (17–27). Late Pleistocene, glacial and glaciofluvial (according to Hättestrand et al., 2007; Boyes et al., 2021; Korsakova, 2022, with changes): 17 — moraine ridges, 18 — lakes, 19 — runoff channels, 20 — areas of glaciofluvial forms’ distribution; 21 — possible position of periglacial and/or subglacial basins according to the analysis of sections (Koshechkin et al., 1973; Lunkka et al., 2018; Korsakova et al., 2019; Zaretskaya et al., 2022). Formed or changed in the Holocene. Glaciofluvial landforms modified by coastal-marine processes: 22 — wind-blown, 23 — flooded, 24 — flooded, and then winnowed; 25 — a complex of accumulative and deflationary aeolian forms (Kuzomensky sands); 26 — active dunes; 27 — estuary fan of the Varzuga River (according to Eichgorn et al., 1976; Nevessky et al., 1977). Elements of morphostructure (28–30). Boundaries: 28 — regional morphotectonic blocks (I — Babozero step, II — Primorsky step, III — White Sea step), 29 — Nizhnevarzugskaya depression. Other symbols: 30 — possible position of the border of the Varzuga River estuary (fragments (б–г)).

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