No 3 (2025)
Articles
Continuity and innovation of Xi Jinping's foreign policy ideas
Abstract
The author examines in detail aspects of the topic such as the continuity and innovation of Xi Jinping's foreign policy ideas. Xi Jinping's foreign policy concept embodies the ideological principles in the field of international politics formulated by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China under Xi Jinping's leadership, serving as the foundation and guidance for China's modern diplomatic activities. This approach reflects both the continuity of the foreign policy course of previous leaders of New China and the new theoretical ideas that reflect contemporary trends and the specifics of the current international situation. The study of the foreign policy ideas that remain unchanged and the innovations introduced by Xi Jinping is of great practical significance for understanding the development of the guiding ideology and determining the vector of innovative changes in China's foreign policy. The article employs comparative-historical and discourse analysis (systematic comparison of official documents such as white papers, reports from CPC congresses, and key speeches and statements by leaders from different periods of the PRC on foreign policy themes). Since the founding of New China, from Mao Zedong to Xi Jinping, Chinese diplomatic thought has combined both continuity and development of traditions with innovations adapted to a new historical stage in accordance with the characteristics of the era. The first generation of the party's central leadership, led by Mao Zedong, implemented a new policy of independence and peaceful diplomacy. Deng Xiaoping introduced the new idea that peace and development are the main themes of the modern era. Jiang Zemin added the form of "promoting common development" to China's diplomatic goals and articulated the thesis of the unacceptability of a unipolar world. Hu Jintao advocated for the "path of peaceful development of China" and proposed the concept of a "harmonious world." Xi Jinping, based on adherence to the diplomatic ideas of previous generations of leaders, proposed to implement a major power diplomacy with Chinese characteristics, launched the initiative of building a community with a shared future for humanity, and is constructing a new type of international relations, thereby writing a new chapter in the history of China's independent and peaceful diplomatic theory and practice.
World politics. 2025;(3):1-15
1-15
The role of Russia in inter-Palestinian settlement and the prospects of the Palestinian factor in world politics
Abstract
The article focuses on the role of the Russian Federation in the negotiation process between the main Palestinian political forces, Fatah and Hamas, as it is through its efforts that consultations with the opposing forces are conducted on a regular basis. Special attention is given to the political divide between the main Palestinian parties as the main obstacle to intra-Palestinian reconciliation. This divide has not only led to fierce clashes between followers of different political factions but has also significantly impacted the prospects for resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. In the nearly two decades since the split in 2007, Fatah and Hamas have signed several reconciliation agreements, yet calls for reconciliation from both sides have largely been rhetorical in nature. Deep mistrust, as well as substantial ideological differences, have led to the failure of all reconciliation attempts, and tensions between the two key Palestinian political parties continue to this day. The methodology employed includes a comprehensive analysis of political documents (such as statements from Fatah and Hamas, as well as official Russian positions), a comparative analysis of the foreign policy approaches of Russia and Western countries, and empirical observations of diplomatic initiatives, including negotiations in Moscow and Beijing. The scientific novelty of the study lies in being one of the first attempts in recent years to systematize and analyze Russia's efforts to bring the positions of leading players on the intra-Palestinian track closer together. The results indicate that deep ideological and political disagreements between Fatah and Hamas remain the main obstacle to the creation of a unified Palestinian state and stable conflict resolution. At the same time, Russian diplomacy occupies a unique position by maintaining regular dialogue with both sides, setting it apart from many Western nations. An analysis of recent events and negotiations, including meetings in Moscow and Beijing, reveals the prospects for the gradual restoration of national unity among Palestinians with the active involvement of Russia and China.
World politics. 2025;(3):16-31
16-31
International space law in the context of regulating the activities of private space companies, using the example of the United States
Abstract
The authors examine in detail the issues of regulation of international space activities by international law. The subject of the study examines international treaties that regulate the activities of states and their private companies in outer space. The absence of comprehensive regulations for space activities and the absence of legislation to control private companies lead to the fact that the activities of states in space are focused more on its monopolization, rather than on collective security. Particular attention is paid to private space companies of the United States, since the most serious challenge in the space arena is their rapid development. In turn, their activities are only indirectly regulated by international space law, and do not have any international standardization, but at the same time pose a real threat to international security. The study is based on comparative legal and institutional methods used to identify contradictions between international and national space law. Comparative analysis and case studies were used to study competition in outer space between state actors and between state and private company in order to identify gray areas in international space law. The novelty of the study lies in the comprehensive analysis of the existing space legislation, such as: the Outer Space Treaty, the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, the Convention on Registration of Objects, the Moon Agreement; consideration of the imperfections of their provisions and proposals for improving the norms of international space law. A comparative analysis of the norms of international space law with the US legislation in the space industry is provided. The article considers the influence of private companies on the development of international space activities, and also identifies the risks that their activities pose. The authors come to the conclusion about the need for an international comprehensive modernization of space law: development of cybersecurity standards and regulations for the use of nuclear facilities in space, creation of unified international standards for private companies with the establishment of a global registry of these companies; reform of the UN COPUOS, introduction of mechanisms for the implementation of norms through national legislation.
World politics. 2025;(3):32-54
32-54
Realism and Constructivism in the Relations between Turkey and the Fanar Patriarchate: Security, Identity, and Normative Conflicts
Abstract
The subject of the research is the relationships between Turkey and the Fanar Greek Patriarchate in the context of international theories – realism and constructivism. The object of the study consists of the political-legal and ideological foundations of interaction between the parties, shaped by historical memory, normative discourses, and security considerations. The author examines in detail aspects such as Turkey's perception of the Patriarchate as a threat to national sovereignty, its claims to an "ecumenical" status and international recognition, as well as the role of the USA, the European Union, and Greece in supporting these claims. Special attention is given to how realism explains Turkey's defensive reflexes through the lens of security and balance of power, while constructivism reveals the processes of identity formation and legitimization of discourses. Collectively, the work demonstrates the multilayered nature of the problem, situated at the intersection of power struggles, normative conflicts, and identity contradictions. The research methodology is based on a comparative theoretical analysis of realism and constructivism, a discursive approach, and consideration of historical memory. Examples such as the Treaty of Lausanne, the closure of the Halki Theological School, and international reports are used to identify the interconnection between security, identity, and norms. The main conclusions of the conducted research reveal the relationship between security issues, identity, and international normative pressure in the relations between Turkey and the Fanar Patriarchate. A particular contribution of the author to the research is the application of both realist and constructivist perspectives, allowing for a demonstration of the limitations of one-dimensional explanations and the necessity of theoretical pluralism. The novelty of the study lies in considering the Patriarchate's issue not only as a religious or legal matter but as a multilayered phenomenon encompassing historical memory, the construction of national identity, and normative discourses. The work emphasizes that realism explains Turkey's desire to maintain the status quo, while constructivism reveals the mechanisms of legitimizing this status quo through norms and identity. Thus, the research contributes to a deeper understanding of the role of religious institutions in international relations.
World politics. 2025;(3):55-71
55-71
Migration policy of the modern state: economic and demographic approach
Abstract
Migration policy today is one of the most significant areas of research in public governance, as globalization processes and economic crises generate mass population movements that require comprehensive regulation. The demographic issues faced by developed countries—such as an aging population and a declining working-age cohort—transform migration flows into a strategic resource, although their utilization remains a subject of intense debate among researchers. Consequently, migration processes are gaining increasing importance in the modern world, significantly affecting economic development, demographic situations, and social stability in states. This influence is particularly evident in countries that serve as recipients of migration flows. Formulating an effective migration policy for such countries is not merely a component of public governance but a strategic necessity that requires a deep understanding of economic and demographic patterns. The economic-demographic approach allows for the identification of key factors that determine the nature and direction of migration policy. Methodologically, this research relies on systemic, institutional, and comparative approaches, enabling a comprehensive analysis of the migration system of the modern state using the example of the Russian Federation, as well as a comparison of the economic and demographic components of external migration. In this regard, the theoretical foundation of the research is based on the economic theory of migration and the human capital migration theory. The novelty of the study lies in the identification of the features of applying the economic and demographic approach at the current stage of implementing state migration policy in the Russian Federation, expressed in the need to develop a set of measures aimed at stimulating the influx of economically demanded foreign migrants, primarily labor migrants, while simultaneously countering illegal migration and other national security risks to ensure harmonious interaction between foreign citizens and the host society, as well as to maintain harmonious interethnic relations. The complex influence of economic and demographic factors on the formation of migration policy is reflected in the necessity of considering numerous interrelated aspects. On one hand, migration policy should be aimed at attracting labor resources to compensate for demographic losses and meet the needs of the economy.
World politics. 2025;(3):72-83
72-83
Processes and Institutions of Energy Diplomacy: Structural-Functional Analysis
Abstract
Energy diplomacy is one of the most important areas in international relations. Scientific research on this issue is extremely difficult due to its high political significance and, consequently, the bias in published works. The study of energy diplomacy should therefore be conducted using structural-functional analysis, that is, identifying the participants in the processes and their tasks. The article examines the content of energy diplomacy as a type of international relations, discusses the processes and institutions of energy diplomacy, studies the phenomenon of lobbying in the energy sector, evaluates the effectiveness and limitations of energy diplomacy using the examples of relations between Russia and Germany and Russia and Britain in the energy sphere, and assesses the reasons for successes and failures. Trust is analyzed as one of the aspects of informal relations in the energy sector, the interconnection of formal and informal tools of energy diplomacy is explored, as well as the peculiarities of the functioning of administrative and bureaucratic structures. The neo-institutional approach and decision-making theory are used to assess the interaction of subjects of energy diplomacy. The institutions and processes of energy diplomacy are distinguished, and their functions are indicated, which allows for the prediction of player behavior, identification of trends, and decision-making. Structural-functional analysis of energy diplomacy can be used to reduce the significance of value-laden judgments and provides a neutral description of relations between states in the energy sector. Energy diplomacy consists of formal and informal processes, where the former can be measured directly through normative legal acts and reports, while the latter can be assessed indirectly through manifestations such as trade directions and volumes, the activity of non-profit organizations and media, public statements by politicians. The structure of energy diplomacy relations includes interaction between international and national energy companies, key consumers, relevant state structures, and key political figures from countries. The functions of participants in energy diplomacy include exerting pressure on decision-makers, facilitating legislative processes, and preparing international treaties. The effectiveness of energy diplomacy varies depending on the resource potential of players: those subjects that can exert greater influence on decision-makers will obtain more favorable conditions.
World politics. 2025;(3):84-96
84-96
National prospects for the implementation of Europe’s "De-risking" policy in relations with China
Abstract
Based on the concept of hedging, the EU's risk-reduction policy regarding China has been analyzed, characterizing China in the post-COVID period as a partner, economic competitor, and systemic rival simultaneously. The study focuses on the national aspects and prospects of implementing the "derisking" policy, examined through the lens of Germany, France, Eastern European countries, and Italy. The article pays particular attention to the development of national strategies towards China and the Indo-Pacific region as a whole, as well as the practical implementation of the risk reduction policy, including states promoting their positions within the EU Council. It discusses how EU member states apply the hedging strategy in key issues of strategic competition between the US and China. The methodological basis of the research comprises a systemic approach using inductive-deductive algorithms, as well as content analysis of strategic documents from the EU and member states, which allowed for the examination of the "derisking" policy at both the European and national levels. A SWOT analysis was applied to assess the strengths and weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with the implementation of the "derisking" policy. It has been revealed that the "derisking" policy at the Brussels level leans towards a conflictual type of hedging, while most nation-states remain within the framework of cooperative hedging. The "risk reduction" policy is a long-term, costly strategy that encourages European countries to maintain constructive relations with Beijing. In key areas of policy, member states will act flexibly, forming changing coalitions and maneuvering between the US and China. The national practice of implementing the "risk reduction" policy has limited potential and depends on the experience of economic relations with China, domestic political conjuncture, and the depth of relations with the US. The author concludes that the French approach is the most objective, as it is oriented towards strengthening the EU's strategic autonomy not only from China but also from the US and encompasses the geopolitical and geo-economic aspects of competition. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the fact that based on the analysis of correlations between strengths and weaknesses, opportunities, and threats for Europe in its relations with China, the author proposes a model of "strategic interdependence" instead of "strategic autonomy."
World politics. 2025;(3):97-126
97-126