Ашық рұқсат
Рұқсат берілді
Тек жазылушылар үшін
№ 5 (2025)
Politics
CPC’s United Front Work under Xi Jinping
Аннотация
The history of the United Front policy dates back to the early days of the CPC, which was initially associated with the fight against Chinese militarists to unite the country and then with repelling Japanese aggression. During Xi Jinping's tenure, special attention has once again been paid to the United Front work, and the CPC is trying to involve the broadest strata of society in the political process. The Chinese leader emphasizes the importance of this work to ensure domestic stability and to spread China's political and cultural influence abroad. To achieve these goals, the role of the Party has been strengthened, the structure of the United Front Department of the CPC Central Committee has been reformed, and the Central Leading Group for United Front Work has been established. The "Regulations on the United Front Work" adopted for the first time in the history of the CPC in 2015 deserves special attention. An unprecedented number of national and regional events are being held dedicated to various areas of this work, and large-scale activities have been launched to form channels of influence in different countries of the world. The work being developed reflects the characteristics of Xi Jinping's political thought, is directly connected with the idea of the strategy of the "great revival of the Chinese nation" and is aimed at reviving the traditions of the CPC and renewing the party.
Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2025;(5):5–27
5–27
Relations in the “China — US — EU” Triangle in Light of the “Tariff War”
Аннотация
The relevance of the article is due to the developments that began less than a year ago, but have already led to uncertainty in global trade. The US announcement of new tariff rates for its trading partners from April 2, 2025, has significantly exacerbated relations in the US-China-EU triangle, causing serious shifts in the ties of these states with third parties. The article examines relations in the US-China, China-EU and EU-US directions in the light of the "tariff war" provoked by Washington, which gives rise to new risks for all participants in the "trialogue". The author believes that if China had to take on more economic costs of the tariff challenge (it has already adapted to the political ones), then the EU unexpectedly suffered both economically and politically. In this regard, the article answers the question about the likelihood of interaction between the EU and China under the anti-tariff banners. The article presents the factors that favor the ChineseEuropean rapprochement, and also characterizes political and economic limits of the latter, examines the US-European tariff "compromises" and the evolution of tariff contradictions on the Chinese-European vector; analyzes the results of the China-EU summit and substantiates the conclusion about the extreme difficulty for China and the EU of achieving a common "strategy for counteracting neoprotectionism". The author characterizes the features of three rounds of US-Chinese tariff negotiations and "Joint Statement". It is noted that in resolving the tariff dispute, China, unlike the EU, did not have to make such significant sacrifices, and that Beijing, for a number of reasons, emerged from the tariff debate even more confident.
Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2025;(5):28–46
28–46
Japan Restoration Association's Difficulties of Growth. The Reasons for the Osaka Opposition Inability to Replicate the Regional Success at the National Level
Аннотация
Japan Restoration Association (JRA), a regional party from Osaka, has achieved a dominant position in the region over the past 15 years, regularly defeating both the ruling Liberal Democratic Party and national opposition parties in local elections. Nationally, JRA became the second-largest opposition party in the Diet and aimed to become the main opposition force after the 2024 elections. However, despite the LDP’s serious defeat and gains by other opposition parties, JRA lost seats and failed to capitalize on the ruling coalition’s setback. This article explores the development of JRA as a regional party, identifies factors behind its popularity in Osaka, and analyzes its experience in national elections. We studied JRA’s political program and conducted a statistical analysis of its local electoral participation. Our research shows JRA’s success in Osaka stemmed from a clear political program, charismatic leaders, effective generational transitions, and strategic alliances. Nationally, however, its program was less distinctive, and it faced competition from other right-wing conservative forces. JRA leaders did not run in national elections and had little influence on results through personal image. The party also declined to join broad opposition coalitions. Thus, the factors behind JRA’s regional success did not translate to the national stage, preventing the Osaka-based party from significantly improving its election outcomes or becoming Japan’s main opposition force.
Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2025;(5):47-62
47-62
Economics
Peculiarities of Chinese Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) in Russia during 2020–2024
Аннотация
This article explores foreign direct investment (FDI) from Chinese investors into the Russian economy during the period from 2020 to 2024. It identifies trends in the annual volumes of new FDI and examines individuals deals based on data from open sources. The relatively small number of transactions completed during this timeframe allows for a comprehensive analysis; however, it also imposes limitations on the identification of statistically significant patterns. Nevertheless, the examination of real cases has unveiled several recurring behavioral patterns among Chinese investors in Russia. By engaging with these patterns, it is possible to enhance the beneficial effects of FDI for Russian regions, particularly in the Far East, to attract foreign financing for sectors in need, and to prioritize key projects. The study discusses four investment companies that executed deals involving the acquisition of tangible assets in Russia during the specified period, analyzing distinct investment projects and posting assumptions regarding the motivations and investment behaviors of each firm under consideration. Special attention is given to recurring patterns in the conduct of Chinese investors, including the timeline for return on investment, partner selection, interactions with the local market, and collaboration with regional authorities. The findings indicate the popularity of investment projects with a medium payback period (more than one year but less than ten years), the predominance of state-controlled Chinese companies over private ones, the prominence of investors' motivations to seek strategic assets in the host country, and comparatively lower popularity of resource extraction projects with long payback periods (over ten years). The author posits that this trend may be attributed to concerns among Chinese investors regarding the security of their assets in Russia over an extended period. The conclusion of the article outlines several findings and hypotheses for further research on this topic.
Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2025;(5):63-75
63-75
From the Factory of the World to a Technological Leader: China's Role in the Semiconductor Industry
Аннотация
The article is devoted to the transformation of China's role in the global semiconductor industry from the largest assembly center to a contender for global technological leadership. China, which has long dominated predominantly the low-tech stages of the global value chain, made unprecedented efforts between 2010–2025 to reduce the technological gap and reduce dependence on foreign chip manufacturers. The research was conducted on the basis of the concepts of technological leadership, technological sovereignty and industrial policy, as well as the theory of global value chains. The purpose of this study is to analyze China's role in the global semiconductor industry from the position of the largest manufacturing hub to a potential technological leader, evaluate the results of government policy, key achievements of Chinese companies, and identify the country's existing problems and prospects in the context of global technological competition. The paper examines government initiatives and programs, including large-scale strategies "Made in China 2025" and the National Fund for Investment in the Integrated Circuit Industry, aimed at developing its own innovation base and increasing the localization of semiconductor production. Special attention is paid to assessing the current state of the industry, analyzing the achievements of Chinese companies, as well as problems related to US sanctions, restrictions on access to key technologies, lithography equipment, and qualified personnel. It is concluded that, despite significant successes and large-scale government support, China has not yet achieved full technological autonomy. Geopolitical barriers and the continuing technological lag behind industry leaders remain significant obstacles to achieving this goal. However, the potential of the market, the constant growth of domestic demand, the level of investment and the strategic determination of China allow us to predict its further strengthening of its position in the global industry.
Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2025;(5):76–89
76–89
International Aspects of China's Nuclear Energy Development Strategy
Аннотация
The article presents an analysis of China's international strategy in the field of nuclear energy, focusing on key areas of cooperation with foreign partners. In the context of global concentration of reactor technology supply — where just six countries (Russia, the United States, France, China, the Republic of Korea, and Japan) hold dominant positions—China is consistently building a network of external partnerships aimed at strengthening its role in the global nuclear industry. The methodological basis of the study is a qualitative content analysis of the annual Blue Books on Nuclear Energy for the years 2018–2024, conducted using MAXQDA software. Over 850 text segments were coded in the process, enabling the identification of five core components of China's strategy: implementation of nuclear projects, cooperation in uranium and nuclear fuel supply, development of technologies and innovations, operational and maintenance services, and issues of nuclear safety and geopolitics. The analysis reveals stable partnership ties between China and several countries: Pakistan (as a key platform for demonstrating Chinese reactor technology), Russia (in the field of advanced nuclear technologies), France (within scientific and technical cooperation), as well as Kazakhstan and Namibia (in uranium supply chains). Additionally, the study examines cases of suspended or reconsidered projects, notably in the United Kingdom and Argentina. The findings suggest that China is pursuing a multilayered strategy that combines technological advancement, project expansion, and flexible foreign-policy tactics — allowing it to steadily consolidate its position as one of the world's leading players in the field of peaceful nuclear energy.
Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2025;(5):90-107
90-107
State and society
Evaluation of the Healthcare System Effectiveness of the Republic of Korea
Аннотация
The healthcare economy of the Republic of Korea began to arouse interest after the country showed its ability to cope with the consequences of the coronavirus pandemic, practically without isolating itself, unlike many other countries. The study of the experience of the Republic of Korea is important for understanding whether it is worth reforming one's system according to the model of the Republic of Korea. An important issue is the assessment of the economic efficiency of the South Korean system. At the same time, the system should be equally effective both in a stable period and to withstand pandemic-type crises. To assess economic efficiency, or determine the optimal use of resources, we studied healthcare expenditure during normal and crisis periods. Life expectancy, total mortality rate per thousand population, and infant mortality rate were taken as the results. The paper provides a comparative analysis with data from Japan and Italy. The author concludes that before the pandemic, the healthcare system of the Republic of Korea was relatively economically efficient, and during the pandemic, despite its undeniable successes, it turned out to be less economically efficient than other countries in the study. Rising healthcare costs led to a crisis in the system after the pandemic, which revealed the need to reform the existing system to restore economical optimum.
Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2025;(5):108-122
108-122
Environment
China's Climate Change Mitigation Policy: Challenges and Achievements
Аннотация
China’s climate policy plays a key role in the world’s efforts to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement as the country accounts for about 1/3 of global greenhouse gas emissions. China forms climate legislation through a combination of laws, five-year plans and industry standards, supported by policy initiatives (the “dual carbon target”, peaking emissions by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2060). Although there is no single “climate law”, all documents are aimed at fulfilling these ambitious commitments through coordinated activities of ministries and departments up to 2030 and 2060. This article examines China’s key achievements in reducing carbon dioxide emissions, including leadership in the development of renewable energy sources, the creation of the largest national carbon trading market and the stated goals of achieving carbon neutrality by 2060. Particular attention is paid to structural challenges: continued dependence on coal, regional imbalances in the energy transition, as well as the growth of energy consumption against the backdrop of urbanization. The analysis and ranking of the instruments used to implement climate policy, such as political decisions, institutions, laws, green financing, trading quotas and the carbon market, research and development, and international cooperation, is conducted. Government agencies and institutions coordinate measures to reduce emissions, transition to green energy, and generate reports on the implementation of international commitments. The success of China's climate strategy depends on overcoming the contradictions between short-term economic interests and long-term environmental goals, as well as on the transformation of the energy sector and strengthening of regulatory mechanisms. Using the Logic proposition, the instruments for shaping the current stage of China's climate policy are considered and ranked.
Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2025;(5):123–139
123–139
Russian Far East
Golden Triangle at Russia's Eastern Frontiers: Prospects for Transboundary Co-operation in the Tumannaya River Delta
Аннотация
The article deals with the problems of joint development of the lower reaches of the border river Tumannaya, which has acquired special relevance in 2024 in the context of a sharp rise in Russia's interaction with the DPRK and the development of Russian-Chinese cooperation. The situation directly affects the national interests of Russia, the PRC and the DPRK, and can both stimulate multilateral cooperation and form painful problem areas. ‘The Tumannaya River Area Development Programme, initiated in 1990 by the Chinese side and supported by the United Nations Development Programme, developed from the very beginning in two conceptually different directions. One of them focused on cross-border cooperation between neighbouring states, while the other envisaged the creation of a Northeast Asian logistics hub with access to the Sea of Japan (East Sea). As part of the development of this project, in 1993 the DPRK adopted the Law on the Rason Trade and Economic Zone, established at the junction of the borders with China and Russia in the areas of the port of Rajin and the city of Sonbon. The radical change in the international situation and the rapid rapprochement between Russia and the DPRK observed recently create prerequisites for the revival of the project of multilateral cooperation on the development of the Tumannaya River Delta as a hub of Russian-North Korean interaction. At the same time, it implies not only Russian-Korean long-term cooperation, but also the formation of a new regional subsystem of the international division of labour and value chains in North-East Asia. It could be implemented both within the framework of the special trade and economic zone ‘Rason’ and within the framework of the actively discussed project of creating a duty-free and visa-free zone with preferential taxation in the southern part of Primorsky Krai on the territory bordering with the DPRK and the PRC. An important aspect of the need for joint development of the Tumannaya River delta by the bordering countries is China's desire to secure its access to the Sea of Japan (East Sea), which may have ambiguous geopolitical consequences and should be subject to comprehensive analysis and agreement of the actors concerned.
Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2025;(5):140–155
140–155
Military build-up
Features of China's “Active Defense” Military Strategy in the Era of Xi Jinping
Аннотация
The article analyzes the evolution and modern interpretation of the strategic concept of "active defense" in the military policy of the People's Republic of China during the reign of Xi Jinping. The purpose of the study is to clarify the content and practical application of this strategy in the context of the changing global military-political situation, technological progress and internal institutional transformations in China's military organization. The object of the analysis is the military strategy of the PRC, and the subject is the transformation of its doctrinal attitudes, organizational and managerial structures and approaches to the operational use of the armed forces. The author consistently examines the historical development of the concept of "active defense" — from Maoist ideas about guerrilla warfare to a strategy focused on warfare in the conditions and informatization of the 21st century. The scientific significance of the work lies in the comprehensive coverage of the PLA reforms and their impact on the image of the Chinese armed forces. The article examines in detail institutional changes, the course towards interspecific integration, the expansion of the geography of the use of force, as well as strengthening strategic deterrence through the development of cyber and space capabilities. As a result of the research, the author comes to the conclusion that "active defense" retains its conceptual foundation as a strategy of deterrence and defense, but in practice it becomes a flexible tool combining political moderation with readiness for proactive offensive actions. The strategy is adapting to new conditions and continues to serve as the most important conceptual framework for Chinese military policy in the era of China's growing global ambitions.
Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2025;(5):156–170
156–170
History
VOKS and China during the Anti-Japanese War 1931–1945: Moral Support and Cultural Cooperation
Аннотация
The article researches the little-studied problem of the activities of the All-Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries (VOKS) during the Anti-Japanese war. Cooperation, strict moral and friendly support of peoples in difficult times are no less important than military assistance. After the restoration of the Soviet-Chinese diplomatic relations in 1932, VOKS continued its work with China. It was not limited only by cultural field. After the outbreak of large-scale Japanese aggression in 1937 and the Great Patriotic War in 1941, VOKS focused mainly on military-patriotic issues. It interacted with the Sino-Soviet Cultural Association (SSCA), formed in 1935, which became the main base for cooperation. VOKS subscribed to periodicals for China; sent literature; provided materials for photo exhibitions and lectures; articles on the situation in the USSR for publication in the official press and the SSCA magazine "Culture of China and the USSR"; held art exhibitions and organized film screenings; provided contacts between the public figures, scientists, artists, writers etc. of the two countries. VOKS carried the truth about the Soviet Union, about its determination to fight world fascism together with China, worked with all sectors of society determined to resist the enemy, thus helping to maintain a united anti-Japanese front. By showing the successes of the Red Army and the Soviet people in the fight against the enemy, VOKS carried a positive impact on the moral and psychological state and mood of Chinese society, supported the motivation and ability of the population to wage war to victory.
Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2025;(5):171-184
171-184