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No 11 (2025)
GENESIS AND GEOGRAPHY OF SOILS
Features of organogenic horizons in different types of forests of the middle taiga of the European North-East of Russia
Abstract
The article highlights the characteristics of structure and properties of organogenic horizons (OHs) in different-type forests of the middle taiga subzone (State Natural Reserve ‘Lyalsky’, Knyazhpogostsky District, Komi Republic). The authors studied the morphological properties of OHs (thickness, structure, fractional composition), determined their particular chemical characteristics (acidity, C and N content) and estimated the organic matter reserves and Corg in them. Median values for all indicators were calculated in Statistica 13.3. program. OHs of automorphic spruce and small-leaved forests of accumulative and trans-accumulative relief positions, which are closely underlain with carbonate-containing parent rocks, have relatively high values of pH (5.3–6.4), N content (1.4–1.5%), narrow C : N ratio (25–29) and increased content of microbial biomass (20–24 mg C/g soil in the upper OH layer). The above-mentioned peculiarities activate decomposition and trigger formation of relatively thin (5–6 cm) OHs with reserves of 37–54 t/ha in automorphic conditions. The moisture content rise in sphagnum spruce forests ensures organic matter conservation and increases the OH thickness to 15 cm and organic matter reserves to 85 t/ha. OHs in soils of green-moss and sphagnum pine forests, which grow on sandy sediments of eluvial relief positions, have acidic medium reaction (pH 4.2–4.5), low N content (0.9–1.0%), wide C : N ratio (44–48) and low content of microbial biomass (13–14 mg C/g soil in the upper OH layer). Unfavourable conditions of organic matter decomposition in green-moss pine forests contribute to the formation of OH with a thickness of 12 cm and total reserves of 73 t/ ha. Excessive moisture of OH in sphagnum pine forests responds for the increase in its thickness to 17 cm and organic matter reserves to 105 t/ha. In automorphic forests, the thickness and reserves of OH decrease along with the row: trunk → crown → window. In sphagnum forest types, we observe the opposite trend, which is probably related to a draining effect of trees. The OHs of forests, which grow in automorphic conditions, accumulate 15–40 % of the total carbon stocks within a meter-deep soil layer. In semi-hydromorphic conditions, they accumulate up to 49%.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1395-1411
1395-1411
Carbonates in the soils of sugar industry infiltration fields (Central Chernozemic region)
Abstract
The forms, composition, and transformation of carbonates during soil formation in technogenic landscapes – infiltration fields of the sugar industry in the chernozemic region – were studied using a range of contemporary instrumental methods. The soils of infiltration fields (Calcaric Gleysols. Histic Gleysols. Eutric Cambisols) inherit the residual material of the original Chernozem containing pedogenic carbonates and are formed under the periodic influence of carbonate-containing waste from the sugar industry such as wastewater, filtration sludge (defecate), and conveyor-washing sludge. The carbonate material entering the soils from technogenic sources consists mainly of calcite, the composition and proportion of impurities in the defecate generally reflect their content in the original rock – limestone. The transformation of technical carbonates during pedogenesis results in the formation of abundant and diverse carbonate pedofeatures represented by impregnations. scattered sparite crystals. efflorescences. microsegregations. Pseudomycelium, and calcified plant residues. Carbonates in the soils of the operating untreated checks are represented not only by carbonate pedofeatures but also by calcareous interlayers of precipitated defecate and wastewater sludge. Raman spectra of carbonates indicate the presence of two crystalline polymorphic modifications of CaCO3 in soils – calcite and aragonite. Tendencies for the transformation of aragonite into calcite were observed after the infiltration checks were abandoned and soils continued to develop under natural hydrological and thermal regimes.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1412-1432
1412-1432
Digital Mapping of the Thickness of Humus Horizon in Soils of the Cis-Salair Plain Using the Random Forest Machine Learning Algorithm
Abstract
Presents the results of digital mapping of the thickness of the humus horizon (THH) of soils of the Cis-Salair plain using the Random Forest (RF) machine learning algorithm implemented on the Google Earth Engine cloud online platform. A total of 92 predictors were employed to characterize soil formation factors, including climate, relief, vegetation, spatial position, and soil properties. Training (n = 718) and validation datasets (n = 130) were created based on archived materials from ZapsibNIIgiprozem (1974–1984). The following indicators of the effectiveness of THH modeling using RF algorithm were obtained: coefficient of determination for the training dataset R2TD = 0.88; coefficient of determination for the validation dataset R2VD = 0.12; root of the mean-square error RMSE = 9.7 cm; mean absolute percentage error MAPEVD = 24.3%; average absolute error MAEVD = 6.5 cm. The accuracy of the modeling, estimated by the mean absolute percentage error MAPEVD, is satisfactory. Actual data show that THH varies from 3 to 110 cm, with a tendency to decrease from northwest to southeast. The lowest (3 cm) average THH values are typical of meadow-chernozem solonetz (Salic Solonetz), and the highest (61 cm) for ordinary meadow soils (Haplic Gleysols).
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1433-1443
1433-1443
SOIL CHEMISTRY
Carbon Dioxide Emission from Soils of Southern Tundra Ecosystems on Northeast Russian Plain (Vorkuta Area)
Abstract
As a result of the conducted research, the emission of CO2 from soils of the southern tundra ecosystems of the north-eastern Russian Plain was estimated using the example of the environs of Vorkuta. The soil cover of the studied area is represented by Histic Turbic Cryosol, Histic Reductaquic Glacic Cryosol, Reductaquic Glacic Cryosol and Reductaquic Glacic Cryosol. Atypically high values of CO2 emission from soils (2.13 ± 0.13 g C/(m2 day)) are largely due to the weather of the 2022 growing season: high air temperatures and low precipitation. 60% of the variability in the emission value is due to the content of microbial biomass carbon and extractable soil carbon, temperature and soil moisture. High spatial variation in the content of extractable carbon and microbial biomass carbon and parameters of the hydrothermal regime of soils was revealed. The soils were characterized by low values of extractable organic carbon and soil microbial biomass carbon (224 ± 18 and 873 ± 73 mg C / kg soil, respectively). The thickness of the organogenic horizon of the soils determines 72% of the variability in the content of microbial biomass carbon and 79% of the variability in the content of extractable carbon. Systematic measurements of CO2 emissions from soils of tundra ecosystems of the north-eastern Russian Plain should be given special attention, as this will improve the accuracy of assessing global greenhouse gas flows.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1444-1457
1444-1457
Assessment of metal pollution of roadside landscapes in the north of Western Siberia using statistical modeling
Abstract
The article presents an assessment of roadside soil and plant pollution by motor vehicles in the Arctic zone of Western Siberia. The studies were conducted on the Surgut-Salekhard motorway near Novy Urengoy and on one of the winter roads south of Tazovsky. A detailed geochemical characteristic of the parent rocks and soils of the study areas was provided. Chemical pollution was usually mild, since northern roads were often characterized by low and medium traffic intensity. Statistical modeling based on the consistent application of factor and discriminant analysis methods of multivariate statistics was used to detect and identify pollutants and the pollution level. It was established that the Cd–Pb–Zn–Cu–Ni association in soils indicates the motor vehicles pollution. An additional source of impact in the urban area was residential construction through the Ca–Mn–Co–Sr–Zn association. Similar parageneses were identified in the study of the solid phase of snow collected at the soil sampling sites, indicating the decisive role of aerotechnogenic transfer of metals in the pollution of natural-territorial complexes and the urban environment. Low activity of lateral and radial migration of metals was shown even in an acidic environment, which was explained by the widespread peat horizon that functions as a complex geochemical barrier – alkaline, biogeochemical and sorption. A change in the chemical composition of indicator plant species was established, caused mainly by aerotechnogenic transfer of metals, the source of which are motor transport and road surface. Soil pollution was localized within the former winter road and in roadside landscapes. However, there were traces of soil cover disturbance, soil thawing and an increase in the STS thickness were established. In general, chemical pollution caused by the impact of motor transport was weakly expressed, and the content of the studied metals did not exceed the standards established for soils (MPCs, TPCs). Calculation of the toxicity probability index (MERMQ) for contaminated soils showed low to moderate risk levels.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1458-1474
1458-1474
SOIL PHYSICS
Change of the soils thermal regime in cryolithozone under global warming
Abstract
Modern climate warming has become one of the most pressing environmental issues, posing a significant threat to ecosystems, economies, and societies worldwide. In 2021, which was recognized as an anomalously hot and dry year, large-scale landscape fires on the Lena-Vilyuy watershed destroyed approximately 1.4 million hectares of forest, leading to significant changes in the structure of biotopes at all levels. These changes included noticeable alterations in the physical and chemical properties and regimes of soils, which have long-term impacts on the ecosystem. As a result of comprehensive studies using classical soil science methods combined with geophysical techniques, the emergence of foci of long-seasonally frozen soils was identified for the first time in Central Yakutia. These soils develop on ancient alluvial deposits under the burned areas of larch and pine forests in the studied region.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1475-1483
1475-1483
Spatial or temporal variation: What is more important to consider when estimating soil respiration rates at different scales of observation
Abstract
The data of field observations of soil respiration (SR), or CO2 efflux from soil, obtained over five years (2020–2024) in four regions of the European Russia (Republic of Chuvashia, Ryazan Oblast, Tula Oblast, Kursk Oblast) within the biome of broad-leaved forests and forest-steppe were analyzed. In each region, SR measurements were carried out in the same set of natural (forests, steppes) and agricultural (arable lands, hayfields, pastures) ecosystems. SR was estimated using portable infrared gas analyzers and static chamber method in 10-fold spatial replications at the peak of vegetation seasons. In the Kursk region, gas measurements were conducted in a more intensive mode (1–2 times per month) as part of year-round monitoring. The goal was to quantify the relative contributions of spatial and temporal variability of SR for different scales of observations, which allows to increase confidence in field estimates of SR for subsequent extrapolation to larger regions or forecast. Nonparametric PERMANOVA analysis of variance was used. At the scale of a year or biotope, the contribution of temporal variability (49–59.8%) to the total variance of SR significantly exceeds the contribution of spatial variability (5.4–9%). Change the spatio-temporal scale of observations to multi-year series and regional ecosystems reduces the contribution of temporal variability to 27%, and increases the contribution of spatial variability up to 23.2%. In general, at the scales considered, temporal variability appears to be more important for the overall variation of SR. This leads to the methodological recommendation to increase the frequency of assessments of intra-annual dynamics of SR rather than to increase the number of measurement points in local ecosystems.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1484-1493
1484-1493
SOIL BIOLOGY
Biological Activity of Soils of Saline Complexes
Abstract
Biological activity in transition zone between Haplic Solonetz and Каstanozem was studied. The research objects were located on natural pastures in dry steppe zone on the south of the East European Plain. Microbial biomass was estimated by the content of soil phospholipids, ratio of microorganisms of different trophic groups was determined, and enzymatic activity was studied using fluorogenically labeled substrates. Microbial biomass decreased with depth and was greatest in the upper layer of Solonetz confined to micro-depression of erosive nature. In upper horizon of other soils, the biomass was half as much. In Kastanozems, phosphatase activity dominated; in Solonetz, activity of leucine-aminopeptidase and arylsulfatase increased with depth. By biological activity, the upper horizon of eroded Solonetz was closest to that of Haplic Kastanozem and differed from Haplic Solonetzes. A pool of extracellular enzymes was active in natric horizon. According to the complex of biological indicators, the soil in transition zone between Haplic Solonetz and Каstanozem stood out sharply. Influence of solonetz process on soil biological activity is proposed to express by coefficients of biological differentiation of profile, showing the ratio biological activity in illuvial and eluvial horizons. According to it, the activity of leucine-aminopeptidase and arylsulfatase, as well as the number of CFU of cellulolytic fungi, were closely related to the intensity of solonetz process.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1494-1506
1494-1506
Formation and functioning of prokaryotic complexes in oil-contaminated soils with the application of biochar
Abstract
The effect of biochar on the structure of the prokaryotic complex of microcosms of soils contaminated with oil products (podzol, sod-podzolic and gray forest) was studied using molecular biological methods (RT-PCR, metabarcoding) and fluorescent microscopy. The introduction of biochar to soil samples with oil products led to a significant increase (by an order of magnitude for podzol) in the biomass of prokaryotes compared to variants without it. Against the background of an increase in biomass, the diversity of the prokaryotic component when adding biochar to soils with OP (a month after application) remains lower than in the control uncontaminated samples due to the emergence of certain representatives of hydrocarbon-oxidizing bacteria as dominants. For each of the studied soils, the most resistant to oil pollution genera of bacteria were determined: in the podzole, these were representatives of the Pseudomonadota Massilia and Paraburkholderia, for sod-podzolic soil – Ramlibacter solisilva and Masillia, for samples of gray forest – Streptomyces occupied 14% of all bacteria, Nocardioides, Gaiella, Bacillus. In contaminated samples (both with and without the addition of biochar) compared to the control, an increase in the content of functional genes responsible for the synthesis of catechol-2,3-dioxygenase (xylE) is observed, marking the initial stage of hydrocarbon degradation. It was found that when biochar is added to OP-contaminated soils, by the 30th day of the experiment, the highest number of copies of the xylE gene and the lowest content of residual OP are noted. The obtained results on the abundance, biomass, taxonomic diversity and biotechnological potential of the prokaryotic community of soils can be useful for developing effective strategies for bioremediation of oil-contaminated areas.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1507-1518
1507-1518
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND SOIL FERTILITY
Elemental Composition of Soil-Plant System Under Conditions of Mineral Fertilizer Application on Sod-Podzolic Sandy Loam Soil
Abstract
At present, there is a lack of data on changes in the elemental composition of components of agrocenoses under the influence of chemicalization agents during the growing season. The aim of the work was to assess changes in the elemental composition of the soil-plant system in different periods of plant vegetation under conditions of mineral fertilizers application on sod-podzolic loamy soil (Stagnic Podzols (Pantoarenic, Bathyloamic, Abruptic, Aric)). Determination of the content of mobile forms of Fe, Mn, Ni, Cu, Co and Zn was carried out in soil samples of the field experiment in the Tver region, taken at different stages of vegetation of winter rye plants during one season – in October (sprouting), April (tillering), June (earing), August (full ripeness). The content of elements in conjugated samples of rye plants was estimated. It was shown that the period of sampling can have a significant influence on the results of assessing the content of mobile forms of elements. An increase in the content of Mn and Zn in the aboveground organs of rye plants was revealed for samples taken at the stage of sprouting with an increase in the dose of mineral fertilizers. It is shown that the values of the content of mobile forms of elements in the soils of the field experiment weakly correlate with the values of the content of elements in the aboveground organs of plants.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1519-1533
1519-1533
Modelling of long-term C sequestration on arable chernozem: integrated effects of fertilization and tillage
Abstract
Using the RothC model, we predicted the effects of tillage, fertilizer systems, and crop residues on C sequestration in the arable layer of 0–20 cm in a long-term field experiment on leached chernozem. The dynamics of SOC were traced until 2100 in three organomineral fertilizer systems compared with absolute control for moldboard tillage (MT) and conservation tillage (CT). It was shown that upon reaching an equilibrium level with an annual input of 2.9 Mg C ha−1, soil organic carbon stocks could be 79–83 and 81–85 Mg C ha−1 for MT and CT, respectively. The system with max FYM rates and crop residues incorporation reaches an equilibrium level 8–16 years earlier than the other systems for MT and 16–24 years earlier for CT, which is associated with higher stocks of C in this system at the beginning of modeling and the different quality composition of SOC. With an annual input of 4.6 Mg C ha−1, the possibility of providing 4‰ and higher annual rate of SOC increase was confirmed only in the first 20 years after an increase in C input. The fertilizer system, as a component of the history of the site, can affect C dynamics at least 40 years with a high C input and more than 75 years with an average C input on agrochernozems.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1534-1547
1534-1547
Changes in the content of organic carbon and physicochemical properties of sod-podzolic soil, crop rotation productivity as a result of long-term use of increasing doses of nitrogen fertilizers in the conditions of the Cis-Urals
Abstract
The effect of long-term application of increasing doses of nitrogen fertilizers on changes in the main fertility parameters of sod-podzolic heavy loamy soil (Albiс Retisol (Abruptic, Aric, Loamic)) was studied in a stationary experiment established in the Perm Territory in 1972. The assessment was performed in dynamics by rotations of the eight–field crop rotation (I–VI rotations) in the arable layer (0–20 cm) and at the end of the VI rotation along the profile in the 0–60 cm layer. The maximum losses of Corg content in the arable layer in all studied variants (without fertilizers, P60K60 (background), background + N30–120) were noted in the first rotation from 1.41–1.60 (initial level) to 1.12–1.22% (by 15–30%). No reliable further decrease in the amount of Corg in the soil (0–20 cm) was observed in the following rotations with the application of nitrogen fertilizers. The straw of grain crops in the experiment was alienated in the 1st–5th rotations, and plowed under in the 6th rotation, which affected the developing balance of Corg. An increase in the Corg content in the soil (0–20 cm) was noted at the end of the 6th rotation in the N120P60K60 variant, its amount became Close to the initial level. The Corg content at the end of the 6th rotation in the N30–90P60K60 variants was 16–20% less than the initial level, and the Corg reserves were 6.6–8.1 t/ha. Long–term application of nitrogen fertilizers at doses of N30–90P60K60 led to a decrease in the Corg content in the 20–40 and 40–60 cm soil layers; no decrease was found in the N120P60K60 variant. A decrease in the pHKCl index, the degree of soil saturation with bases, and an increase in hydrolytic acidity were noted at the end of the second rotation as a result of using high doses of nitrogen fertilizers N90–120P60K60, despite the liming carried out at the beginning of this rotation. Deterioration in soil acidity began to be observed only with the fourth rotation when using low doses of N30–60P60K60. The productivity of crop rotation as a result of using N30–120P60K60 fertilizers increased by 15–20%.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1548-1557
1548-1557
The Influence of Soil Conditions on the Reproduction of Quercus myrsinifolia Blume on the Black Sea Coast of Southern Abkhazia
Abstract
A study of soils on the Black Sea coast of Abkhazia was carried out to identify properties that limit or favour the spread of Q. myrsinifolia or myrsinifolia oak, as it has started to show invasive plant traits in the last 20 years. Q. myrsinifolia, as in the last 20 years it has started to show characteristics of an invasive plant. The results of analyses of pH of water and salt extracts, hydrolytic acidity, carbon, phosphorus and potassium content, sum of exchangeable bases and degree of base saturation, as well as soil hardness, fraction greater than 1 mm, granulometric composition, and hygroscopic moisture content were analysed using the principal component method to identify factors that could influence the survival of Q. myrsinifolia seedlings. These were carbon and phosphorus content: myrsinifolia oak actively occupied territories with strongly skeletal soils containing less phosphorus than soils where seedling development was stopped and the skeletal fraction was absent.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1558-1566
1558-1566
Ecotoxicological assessment of coffee waste as a component of organic fertilizers
Abstract
About 6 million tons of coffee waste are generated annually in the world, which in most cases are not recycled, accumulate and have a negative impact on the environment due to the content of caffeine, tannin, polyphenols and other toxic substances. The use of coffee waste as organic fertilizer is limited by the presence of the same toxic compounds. A possible approach to reduce the negative impact of coffee waste on soil biota could be their composting, including vermicomposting. In this study, ecotoxicological assessment of coffee wastes before and after vermicomposting using earthworms Eisenia andrei was carried out. The initial waste showed high toxicity: coffee grounds were classified as hazard class II, coffee chaff − as hazard class III. After vermicomposting, toxicity decreased: samples with 25−50% waste content became low hazardous (class IV), and with 100% − moderately hazardous (class III). The study confirmed that vermicomposting is an effective method of coffee waste detoxification, allowing to obtain safe organic fertilizers. Dosages of no more than 50% of waste in compost were recommended for practical application.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1567-1579
1567-1579
DEGRADATION, REHABILITATION, AND CONSERVATION OF SOILS
Trends in soil erosion in agricultural regions of Russia in recent decades in the context of changes of cover-management factor
Abstract
Currently, changes in the rate of soil losses on arable land depend to the greatest extent on the set of sown agricultural crops. Socio-economic changes in recent decades have influenced the range of crops cultivated in agrarian regions of Russia, which led to changes in cover-management factor (C-factor) of soil erosion. The aim of the study was to identify the changes in C-factor of crop rotations for periods of meltwater and rainfall runoff for the time windows 1996–2012 and 2014–2022 at the level of administrative regions of the Russian Federation, as well as municipalities within them. The dynamics of crop rotation was estimated according to official statistical data. It was found that the C-factor of rainfall runoff increased during 1996–2012 in most regions, but has stabilized in the Southern part of European Russia in the last 10 years. In the Volga region, the Urals and Siberia, the C-factor of rainfall runoff continues to grow at present due to the increase in the proportion of row crops in crop rotation. However, the change in C-factor did not exceed 20% in most regions for the last 30 years. A high variability of values and trends of C-factor at the level of municipalities was established. The variability of C-factor is the lowest for the regions with the dominance of chernozem soils. The growth of C-factor for period of rainfall runoff leads to soil fertility decreasing. Regions with high soil losses from arable land at the end of the 20th century (Kursk, Oryol and Tula regions, the Republics of Mordovia and Tatarstan) are currently the most vulnerable to soil erosion.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1580-1596
1580-1596
Impact of fires in boreal forests on carbon dioxide emissions from soil surfaces (review)
Abstract
Forest fires have a significant effect on the structural and functional organization of ecosystems, affecting all its components. The purpose of the work was to analyze and systematize data on the impact of fires in boreal forests on CO2 emissions from the soil surface and the combustion of forest fuels (CFF). It is shown that pyrogenesis is one of the leading soil-forming factors affecting the physico-chemical properties and reserves of organic matter in the forest floor and upper soil horizons, as well as their temperature regime, especially in light coniferous forests, formed by pine and larch. In forest litter, after the passage of a forest fire, there is a decrease in acidity, carbon reserves, and a narrowing of the ratio C : N. The fractional composition of organic matter changes due to the accumulation of combustion products.Gorenje In the organogenic horizon, an increase in the density of composition, the degree of saturation with bases, and the hydrophobicity of soils is noted. This, combined with the death of plant root systems, leads to a decrease in the rate of CO2 emissions from the soil surface. The intensity of fires greatly affects the release of carbon dioxide and the time required to return this indicator to its original state. The effect of fire on the temperature coefficient Q10 can be multidirectional: negative (especially in the case of intense fire exposure) or with no effect. It has been established that the inhibition of CO2 emissions and the Q10 value is primarily due to reduction of autotrophic respiration.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1597-1613
1597-1613
The Probabilistic Nature of Humus and the Assessment of Its Heterogeneity in Pedotransfer Models
Abstract
A probabilistic assessment of spatial variability of humus content in soils in the river basin system and ravine catchment as its component in pedotransfer models of humus accumulation was carried out. The parameters of the relationship between natural and anthropogenic factors and the natural potential of ordinary Chernozem in steppe agrolandscapes on a basin basis were established. In order to reveal the peculiarities of the character of spatial distribution of humus content in soils of the Aidar River basin, confined to the upper, middle and lower reaches within the borders of the Lugansk People’s Republic (LPR), a statistical analysis of data from two rounds of a large-scale survey (1970 and 2011) was performed, the nature of long-term dynamics was revealed, statistical and probabilistic situations were analyzed, a schematic map of the modern spatial distribution of humus content was constructed, and a characteristic of the probability of its manifestation in various elements of the “river basin → ravine catchment” system was given. The principles of studying natural factors in pedotransfer models of soil formation include consistent mathematical and statistical analysis using GIS technologies and calculations by thematic stages: (1) determining the patterns of humus content and natural potential of ordinary Chernozem of steppe agrolandscapes from the parameters of granulometric composition, soil profile thickness, altitude above sea level and features of territory moisture through hydrothermal index of different periods of the year in the northern steppe; (2) forming pedotransfer models for determining the humus content and natural potential of humus reserves of ordinary Chernozem. Nonlinear pedotransfer models allow calculating the humus content of soils depending on the entire range of their values (minimum, average, maximum) and, taking into account the leading factors, constructing an optimization surface of the relationship between the humus content and natural factors.
Eurasian Soil Science. 2025;(11):1614-1632
1614-1632