Molecular mechanisms of cell functioning in norm and pathology

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Abstract

In our study, the following are modern information about the structural and functional organization of cell membranes, the internal apparatus, as well as the cell organelle. The features of the functioning of the structural and dynamic genome are shown, including the main epigenetic mechanisms of gene expression regulation. The cell pathology section describes the main pathological processes that occur in cells after reversible and irreversible damage. The mechanisms and signaling pathways of the phenomenon, markers of cellular aging are highlighted, as well as the significance of this phenomenon in normal and pathological conditions. The main mechanisms of hypoxic and free-radical necrobiosis are described. The mechanisms, signaling pathways, and significance for the norm and pathology of two types of programmed cell death, autophagy and apoptosis, are discussed in detail. The prospect of using fundamental knowledge about the molecular mechanisms of life activity to improve the treatment of the most urgent types of pathology is shown.

About the authors

Alexander I. Tyukavin

Saint Petersburg State Chemical and Pharmaceutical University of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation

Author for correspondence.
Email: alexander.tukavin@pharminnotech.com
SPIN-code: 8476-5366

Doctor of Medicine (MD), Professor, Head of the Department to Physiology and Pathology

Russian Federation, Saint Petersburg

Sergey V. Suchkov

Russian Biotechnological University of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation; Moscow State Medical Dental University named after A. I. Evdokimov

Email: ssuchkov57@gmail.com
SPIN-code: 7052-7335

Doctor of Medicine (MD), Professor, Chair of the Department of Personalized Medicine, Precision Nutriciology and Biodesign, Institute of Biotechnology & Global Health, Professor of the Department of Clinical Al-lergology and Immunology

Russian Federation, Moscow; Moscow

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Supplementary files

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2. Fig. 1. Scheme of cell organization

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3. Fig. 2. The structure of the plasma membrane of the cell

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4. Fig. 3. Scheme of the organization of the cytoskeleton

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5. Fig. 4. Scheme organization of mitochondria

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6. Fig. 5. Scheme of intermolecular electron transfer along the respiratory chain of mitochondria

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7. Fig. 6. Structure of the endoplasmic reticulum

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8. Fig. 7. Functional interaction of the Golgi complex and lysosomes

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9. Fig. 8. Scheme of the structure of ribosomes and protein synthesis

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10. Fig. 9. Scheme of the structure of the cell nucleus

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11. Fig. 10. Chromatin state variants and gene activity

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12. Fig. 11. DNA packaging mechanism mediated by histones

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13. Fig. 12. The structure of the human gene encoding the protein. Promoter – a DNA nucleotide sequence recognized by RNA polymerase as a launching pad for the start of transcription; An exon is a section of a gene that carries information about the structure of a protein. Intron – a section of a gene that does not carry information about the synthesis of an enzyme or RNA specific for these genes) is located between the coding sections of genes (exons)

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14. Fig. 13. Protein synthesis

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15. Fig. 14. Methylation of cytosine (left), 5-methylcytosine (right)

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16. Fig. 15. Outcomes of disorders of intracellular processes after cell damage

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17. Fig. 16. Types and mechanisms of cellular aging. There are three types of cellular aging: 1. Replicative, 2. Oncogene-induced senescence (OIS), and 3. Stress-induced premature cell senescence (SIPS)

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18. Fig. 17. Replicative type of cellular aging. TRF2 is a factor that binds telomeric repeats and is present in telomeres throughout the entire cell cycle; POT1 is a gene that regulates telomere length and protects the ends of chromosomes from recombination and instability. ATM is an enzyme (protein kinase) that activates several proteins that initiate cell cycle arrest. ATR is an enzyme (protein kinase) that monitors DNA damage and, if detected, activates cell cycle arrest at a checkpoint

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19. Fig. 18. Morphological signs of the phenomenon of cellular aging. Senescent cells are characterized by a single large nucleolus and small DNA foci formed by aging-associated heterochro matin (SAHF)

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20. Fig. 19. Scheme of the development of cell necrosis

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21. Fig. 20. Intracellular damaging effects of ionized calcium

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22. Fig. 21. Stages of free radical lipid peroxidation

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23. Fig. 22. Levels of action of antioxidant factors of the cell

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24. Fig. 23. Types of autophagy

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25. Fig. 24. Intracellular mechanisms of autophagy regulation

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26. Fig. 25. When the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis is blocked, activation of autophagy and the enzyme (kinase) JNK cause autophagic cell death

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27. Fig. 26. Comparative evaluation of morphological and functional changes in the cell during necrosis and apoptosis

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28. Fig. 27. Molecular mechanisms of apoptosis

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