Variable electromagnetic fields in physiotherapy of diseases of the musculoskeletal system
- Authors: Byalovsky Y.Y.1, Ivanov A.V.2, Rakitina I.S.1
-
Affiliations:
- Ryazan State Medical University
- Yelatma Instrument Making Enterprise
- Issue: Vol 21, No 5 (2022)
- Pages: 369-388
- Section: Review
- URL: https://journals.rcsi.science/1681-3456/article/view/131062
- DOI: https://doi.org/10.17816/rjpbr115279
- ID: 131062
Cite item
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that the exogenous electromagnetic field may be involved in many biological processes of great importance for therapeutic interventions.
It is known that variable electromagnetic fields are a non-invasive, safe and effective therapeutic tool without obvious side effects. Numerous studies have shown that variable electromagnetic fields can become an independent or additional method of treating diseases of the musculoskeletal system. However, several questions remain unresolved. Prior to their widespread clinical application, further research is needed based on well-designed, high-quality studies to standardize treatment parameters and develop an optimal protocol for healthcare decision making.
In this review, we aimed to provide up-to-date data on the mechanism of action, clinical application, and controversy regarding variable electromagnetic fields in the physiotherapy of musculoskeletal disorders.
Full Text
##article.viewOnOriginalSite##About the authors
Yury Yu. Byalovsky
Ryazan State Medical University
Author for correspondence.
Email: b_uu@mail.ru
ORCID iD: 0000-0002-6769-8277
SPIN-code: 6389-6643
MD, Dr. Sci. (Med.), Professor
Russian Federation, RyazanAleksey V. Ivanov
Yelatma Instrument Making Enterprise
Email: ivanov@elamed.com
ORCID iD: 0000-0001-5961-892X
SPIN-code: 4597-8537
Russian Federation, Yelatma
Irina S. Rakitina
Ryazan State Medical University
Email: rakitina62@gmail.com
ORCID iD: 0000-0002-9406-1765
SPIN-code: 8427-9471
MD, Cand. Sci. (Med.), Associated Professor
Russian Federation, RyazanReferences
- Markov MS. Pulsed electromagnetic field therapy history, state of the art and future. Environmentalist. 2007;27(4):465–475. doi: 10.1007/s10669-007-9128-2
- The classic: Fundamental aspects of fracture treatment by Iwao Yasuda, reprinted from J. Kyoto Med. Soc., 4:395–406, 1953. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1977;(124):5–8.
- Victoria G, Petrisor B, Drew B, Dick D. Bone stimulation for fracture healing: What’s all the fuss? Indian J Orthop. 2009;43(2):117–120. doi: 10.4103/0019-5413.50844
- Brighton CT, Friedenberg ZB, Mitchell EI, Booth RE. Treatment of nonunion with constant direct current. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1977;(124):106–123.
- Dealler SF. Electrical phenomena associated with bones and fractures and the therapeutic use of electricity in fracture healing. J Med Eng Technol. 1981;5(2)73–79. doi: 10.3109/03091908109042442
- Ciombor DM, Aaron RK. The role of electrical stimulation in bone repair. Foot Ankle Clin. 2005;10(4):579–593, vii. doi: 10.1016/j.fcl.2005.06.006
- Waldorff EI, Zhang N, Ryaby JT. Pulsed electromagnetic field applications: A corporate perspective. J Orthop Translat. 2017;(9):60–68. doi: 10.1016/j.jot.2017.02.006
- Bassett CA, Pawluk RJ, Becker RO. Effects of electric currents on bone in vivo. Nature. 2004;(204):652–654. doi: 10.1038/204652a0
- Bassett CA, Pilla AA, Pawluk RJ. A non-operative salvage of surgically-resistant pseudarthroses and non-unions by pulsing electromagnetic fields. A preliminary report. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1977;(124):128–143.
- Daish C, Blanchard R, Fox K, et al. The application of Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields (PEMFs) for bone fracture repair: Past and perspective findings. Ann Biomed Eng. 2018;46(4):525–542. doi: 10.1007/s10439-018-1982-1
- Adie S, Harris IA, Naylor JM, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic field stimulation for acute tibial shaft fractures: A multicenter, double-blind, randomized trial. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2011;93(17):1569–1576. doi: 10.2106/JBJS.J.00869
- Bassett CA, Mitchell SN, Gaston SR. Treatment of ununited tibial diaphyseal fractures with pulsing electromagnetic fields. J Bone Jt Surg Am. 1981;63(4):511–523.
- Androjna C, Fort B, Zborowski M, Midura RJ. Pulsed electromagnetic field treatment enhances healing callus biomechanical properties in an animal model of osteoporotic fracture. Bioelectromagnetics. 2014;35(6):396–405. doi: 10.1002/bem.21855
- Bassett CA. Fundamental and practical aspects of therapeutic uses of pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs). Crit Rev Biomed Eng. 1989;17(5):451–529.
- Juutilainen J, Lang S. Genotoxic, carcinogenic and teratogenic effects of electromagnetic fields. Introduction and overview. Mutat Res. 1997;387(3):165–171. doi: 10.1016/s1383-5742(97)00036-7
- Rubik B. Bioelectromagnetics & the future of medicine. Adm Radiol J. 1997;16(8):38–46.
- Pasek J, Pasek T, Sieron-Stoltny K, et al. Electromagnetic fields in medicine--The state of art. Electromagn Biol Med. 2016;35(2):170–175. doi: 10.3109/15368378.2015.1048549
- Markov MS. Expanding use of pulsed electromagnetic field therapies. Electromagn Biol Med. 2007;26(3):257–274. doi: 10.1080/15368370701580806
- Bachl N, Ruoff G, Wessner B, Tschan H. Electromagnetic interventions in musculoskeletal disorders. Clin Sports Med. 2008;27(1):87–105, viii. doi: 10.1016/j.csm.2007.10.006
- Elshiwi AM, Hamada HA, Mosaad D, et al. Effect of pulsed electromagnetic field on nonspecific low back pain patients: A randomized controlled trial. Braz J Phys Ther. 2019;23(3):244–249. doi: 10.1016/j.bjpt.2018.08.004
- Assiotis A, Sachinis NP, Chalidis BE. Pulsed electromagnetic fields for the treatment of tibial delayed unions and nonunions. A prospective clinical study and review of the literature. J Orthop Surg Res. 2012;(7):24. doi: 10.1186/1749-799X-7-24
- Shi H, Xiong J, Chen Y, et al. Early application of pulsed electromagnetic field in the treatment of postoperative delayed union of long-bone fractures: A prospective randomized controlled study. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2013;(14):35. doi: 10.1186/1471-2474-14-35
- Liu IF, He HC, Yang L, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic fields for postmenopausal osteoporosis and concomitant lumbar osteoarthritis in southwest China using proximal femur bone mineral density as the primary endpoint: study protocol for a rando mized controlled trial. Trials. 2015;(16):265. doi: 10.1186/s13063-015-0780-4
- Ryang S, Koog YH, Jeong KI, Wi H. Effects of pulsed electromagnetic field on knee osteoarthritis: A systematic review. Rheumatology 2013;52(5):815–824. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kes063
- Yang X, He H, Zhou Y, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic field at different stages of knee osteoarthritis in rats induced by low-dose monosodium iodoacetate: Effect on subchondral trabecular bone microarchitecture and cartilage degradation. Bioelectromagnetics. 2017;38(3):227–238. doi: 10.1002/bem.22028
- Wang T, Xie W, Ye W, He C. Effects of electromagnetic fields on osteoarthritis. Biomed Pharmacother. 2019;(118):109282. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2019.109282
- Wang T, Yang L, Jiang J, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic fields: Promising treatment for osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int. 2019;30(2):267–276. doi: 10.1007/s00198-018-04822-6
- Wang YY, Pu XY, Shi WG, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic fields promote bone formation by activating the sAC-cAMP-PKA-CREB signaling pathway. J Cell Physiol. 2019;234(3):2807–2821. doi: 10.1002/jcp.27098
- Aaron RK, Boyan BD, Ciombor DM, et al. Stimulation of growth factor synthesis by electric and electromagnetic fields. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2004;(419):30–37. doi: 10.1097/00003086-200402000-00006
- Goto T, Fujioka M, Ishida M, Kuribayashi M. Noninvasive up-regulation of angiopoietin-2 and fibroblast growth factor-2 in bone marrow by pulsed electromagnetic field therapy. J Orthop Sci. 2010;15(5):661–665. doi: 10.1007/s00776-010-1510-0
- Zhou J, He H, Yang L, Chen S. Effects of pulsed electromagnetic fields on bone mass and Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathway in ovariectomized rats. Arch Med Res. 2012;43(4):274–282. doi: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2012.06.002
- Jing D, Zhai M, Tong S, Xu F. Pulsed electromagnetic fields promote osteogenesis and osseointegration of porous titanium implants in bone defect repair through a Wnt/beta-catenin signaling-associated mechanism. Sci Rep. 2016;(6):32045. doi: 10.1038/srep32045
- Tong J, Sun L, Zhu B, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic fields promote the proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts by reinforcing intracellular calcium transients. Bioelectromagnetics. 2017;38(7):541–549. doi: 10.1002/bem.22076
- De Mattei M, Pasello M, Pellati A, et al. Effects of electromagnetic fields on proteoglycan metabolism of bovine articular cartilage explants. Connect Tissue Res. 2003;44(3-4):154–159.
- Vicenti G, Bizzoca D, Nappi VS, et al. Biophysical stimulation of the knee with PEMFs: From bench to bedside. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents. 2018;32(6 Suppl 1):23–28.
- Brighton CT, McCluskey WP. Response of cultured bone cells to a capacitively coupled electric field: Inhibition of cAMP response to parathyroid hormone. J Orthop Res. 1988;6(4):567–571. doi: 10.1002/jor.1100060414
- Hiraki Y, Endo N, Takigawa M, Asada A. Enhanced responsiveness to parathyroid hormone and induction of functional differentiation of cultured rabbit costal chondrocytes by a pulsed electromagnetic field. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1987;931(1):94–100. doi: 10.1016/0167-4889(87)90054-1
- Cain CD, Adey WR, Luben RA. Evidence that pulsed electromagnetic fields inhibit coupling of adenylate cyclase by parathyroid hormone in bone cells. J Bone Miner Res. 1987;2(5):437–141. doi: 10.1002/jbmr.5650020511
- Luben RA, Cain CD, Chen C, et al. Effects of electromagnetic stimuli on bone and bone cells in vitro: Inhibition of responses to parathyroid hormone by low-energy low frequency fields. Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 1982;79(13):4180–4184. doi: 10.1073/pnas.79.13.4180
- Bourguignon GJ, Jy W, Bourguignon LY. Electric stimulation of human fibroblasts causes an increase in Ca2+ influx and the exposure of additional insulin receptors. J Cell Physiol. 1989;140(2):379–385. doi: 10.1002/jcp.1041400224
- Cossarizza A, Monti D, Bersani F, et al. Extremely low frequency pulsed electromagnetic fields increase interleukin-2 (IL-2) utilization and IL-2 receptor expression in mitogen-stimulated human lymphocytes from old subjects. FEBS Lett. 1989;248(1-2):141–144. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(89)80449-1
- Fitzsimmons RJ, Ryaby JT, Magee P, Baylink DJ. IGF-II receptor number is increased in TE-85 osteosarcoma cells by combined magnetic fields. J Bone Miner Res. 1995;10(5):812–819. doi: 10.1002/jbmr.5650100519
- Cho MR, Thatte HS, Lee RC, Golan DE. Induced redistribution of cell surface receptors by alternating current electric fields. FASEB J. 1994;8(10):771–776. doi: 10.1096/fasebj.8.10.8050677
- Shankar VS, Simon BJ, Bax CM, et al. Effects of electromagnetic stimulation on the functional responsiveness of isolated rat osteoclasts. J Cell Physiol. 1998;176(3):537–544. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4652(199809)176:3<537::AID-JCP10>3.0.CO;2-X
- Varani K, Gessi S, Merighi V. Effect of low frequency electromagnetic fields on A2A adenosine receptors in human neutrophils. Br J Pharmacol. 2002;136(1)57–66. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0704695
- Varani K, Vinccnzi F, Ravani A, et al. Adenosine receptors as a biological pathway for the anti-inflammatory and beneficial effects of low frequency low energy pulsed electromagnetic fields. Mediators Inflamm. 2017;(2017):2740963. doi: 10.1155/2017/2740963
- Vincenzi F, Targa M, Corciulo C, Gessi S. Pulsed electromagnetic fields increased the anti-inflammatory effect of A2A and Аз adenosine receptors in human T/C-28a2 chondrocytes and hFOB 1.19 osteoblasts. PLoS One 2013;8(5):e65561. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065561
- Yuan J, Xin F, Jiang W. Underlying signaling pathways and therapeutic applications of pulsed electromagnetic fields in bone repair. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2018;46(4):1581–1594. doi: 10.1159/000489206
- Miyamoto H, Sawaji Y, Iwaki T, Masaoka T. Intermittent pulsed electromagnetic field stimulation activates the mTOR pathway and stimulates the proliferation of osteoblast-like cells. Bioelectromagnetics. 2019;40(6):412–421. doi: 10.1002/bem.22207
- Fitzsimmons RJ, Strong DD, Mohan S, Baylink DJ. Low-amplitude, low-frequency electric field-stimulated bone cell proliferation may in part be mediated by increased IGF-II release. J Cell Physiol. 1992;150(1):84–89. doi: 10.1002/jcp.1041500112
- Nagai M, Ota M. Pulsating electromagnetic field stimulates mRNA expression of bone morphogenetic protein-2 and -4. J Dent Res. 1994;73(10):1601–1605. doi: 10.1177/00220345940730100401
- Aaron RK, Wang S, Ciombor DM. Upregulation of basal TGFbetal levels by EMF coincident with chondrogenesis-implications for skeletal repair and tissue engineering. J Orthop Res. 2002;20(2):233–240. doi: 10.1016/S0736-0266(01)00084-5
- Lohmann CH, Schwartz Z, Liu Y, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic fields affect phenotype and connexin 43 protein expression in MLO-Y4 osteocyte-like cells and ROS 17/2.8 osteoblast-like cells. J Orthop Res. 2003;21(2):326–334. doi: 10.1016/S0736-0266(02)00137-7
- Holmes D. Non-union bone fracture: A quicker fix. Nature. 2017;550(7677):S193. doi: 10.1038/550S193a
- Schottel PC, O’Connor DP, Brinker MR. Time trade-off as a measure of health-related quality of life: Long bone nonunions have a devastating impact. J Bone Jt Surg Am. 2015;97(17):1406–1410. doi: 10.2106/JBJS.N.01090
- Peters RM, Claessen FM, Doornberg JN, et al. Union rate after operative treatment of humeral shaft nonunion-a systematic review. Injury. 2015;46(12):2314–2324. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2015.09.041
- El Haj M, Khoury A, Mosheiff R, et al. Orthogonal double plate fixation for long bone fracture nonunion. Acta Chir Orthop Traumatol Cech. 2013;80(2):131–137.
- Shi HF, Xiong J, Chen YX, et al. Early application of pulsed electromagnetic field in the treatment of postoperative delayed union of long-bone fractures: A prospective randomized controlled study. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2013;(14):35. doi: 10.1186/1471-2474-14-35
- Murray HB, Pethica BA. A follow-up study of the in-practice results of pulsed electromagnetic field therapy in the management of nonunion fractures. Orthop Res Rev. 2016;(8):67–72. doi: 10.2147/ORR.S113756
- Adams BD, Frykman GK, Taleisnik J. Treatment of scaphoid nonunion with casting and pulsed electromagnetic fields: A study continuation. J Hand Surg Am. 1992;17(5)910–914. doi: 10.1016/0363-5023(92)90467-4
- Bassett CA, Mitchell SN, Schink MM. Treatment of therapeutically resistant non-unions with bone grafts and pulsing electromagnetic fields. J Bone Jt Surg Am. 1982;64(8):1214–1220.
- Bassett CA, Mitchell SN, Gaston SR. Pulsing electromagnetic field treatment in ununited fractures and failed arthrodeses. JAMA 1982;247(5):623–628.
- Dunn AW, Rush GA. Electrical stimulation in treatment of delayed union and nonunion of fractures and osteotomies. South Med J. 1984;77(12):1530–1534. doi: 10.1097/00007611-198412000-00013
- Frykman GK, Taleisnik J, Peters G. Treatment of nonunited scaphoid fractures by pulsed electromagnetic field and cast. J Hand Surg. 1986;11(3):344–349. doi: 10.1016/s0363-5023(86)80140-x
- Marcer M, Musatti G, Bassett CA. Results of pulsed electromagnetic fields in ununited fractures after external skeletal fixation. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1984;(190):260–265.
- Meskens MW, Stuyck JA, Feys H, Mulier JC. Treatment of nonunion using pulsed electromagnetic fields: A retrospective follow-up study. Acta Orthop. Belg. 1990;56(2):483–488.
- Sharrard WJ. A double-blind trial of pulsed electromagnetic fields for delayed union of tibial fractures. J Bone Jt Surg Br. 1990;72(3):347–355. doi: 10.1302/0301-620X.72B3.2187877
- Sharrard WJ, Sutcliffe ML, Robson MJ, Maceachern AG. The treatment of fibrous non-union of fractures by pulsing electromagnetic stimulation. J Bone Jt Surg Br. 1982;64(2):189–193. doi: 10.1302/0301-620X.64B2.6978339
- Holmes GB. Treatment of delayed unions and nonunions of the proximal fifth metatarsal with pulsed electromagnetic fields. Foot Ankle Int. 1994;15(10):552–556. doi: 10.1177/107110079401501006
- Tepper OM, Callaghan MJ, Chang E, Galiano RD. Electromagnetic fields increase in vitro and in vivo angiogenesis through endothelial release of FGF-2. FASEB J. 2004;18(11):1231–1233. doi: 10.1096/fj.03-0847fje
- Streit A, Watson BC, Granata JD, et al. Effect on clinical outcome and growth factor synthesis with adjunctive use of pulsed electromagnetic fields for fifth metatarsal nonunion fracture: A doubleblind randomized study. Foot Ankle Int. 2016;37(9):919–923. doi: 10.1177/1071100716652621
- De Haas WG, Beaupre A, Cameron H, English E. The Canadian experience with pulsed magnetic fields in the treatment of ununited tibial fractures. Clin Ortho Relat Res. 1986;(208):55–58.
- Simonis RB, Parnell EJ, Ray PS, Peacock JL. Electrical treatment of tibial non-union: A prospective, randomised, double-blind trial. Injury. 2003;34(5):357–362. doi: 10.1016/s0020-1383(02)00209-7
- Barker AT, Dixon RA, Sharrard WJ, Sutcliffe ML. Pulsed magnetic field therapy for tibial non-union. Interim results of a double-blind trial. Lancet. 1984;1(8384):994–996. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(84)92329-8
- Meskens MW, Stuyck JA, Mulier JC. Treatment of delayed union and nonunion of the tibia by pulsed electromagnetic fields. A retrospective follow-up. Bull Hosp Dis Orthop Inst. 1988;48(2):170–175.
- Henderson JV, Harrison CM, Britt HC, et al. Prevalence, causes, severity, impact, and management of chronic pain in Australian general practice patients. Pain Med. 2013;14(9):1346–1361. doi: 10.1111/pme.12195
- Guccione AA, Felson DT, Anderson JJ, et al. The effects of specific medical conditions on the functional limitations of elders in the Framingham Study. Am J Public Health 1994;84(3):351–358. doi: 10.2105/ajph.84.3.351
- Cross M, Smith E, Hoy D, et al. The global burden of hip and knee osteoarthritis: estimates from the global burden of disease 2010 study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2014;73(7):1323–1330. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-204763
- Elders MJ. The increasing impact of arthritis on public health. J Rheumatol Suppl. 2000;60:6–8.
- Pavone V, Boettner F, Fickert S, Sculco TP. Total condylar knee arthroplasty: A long-term followup. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2001;(388):18–25. doi: 10.1097/00003086-200107000-00005
- Hochberg MC, Altman RD, April KT, et al. American College of American College of Rheumatology, Recommendations for the use of nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic therapies in osteoarthritis of the hand, hip, and knee. Arthritis Care Res. 2012;64(4):465–474. doi: 10.1002/acr.21596
- Zhang W, Moskowitz RW, Nuki G, Abramson S. OARSI recommendations for the management of hip and knee osteoarthritis. Part II: OARSI evidence-based, expert consensus guidelines. Osteoarthr Cartil. 2008;16(2):137–162. doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2007.12.013
- Lo GH, Merchant MG, Driban JB, et al. Knee alignment is quantitatively related to periarticular bone morphometry and density, especially in patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2018;70(2):212–221. doi: 10.1002/art.40325
- Ozguclu E, Cetin A, Cetin M, Calp E. Additional effect of pulsed electromagnetic field therapy on knee osteoarthritis treatment: A randomized, placebo-controlled study. Clin Rheumatol. 2010;29(8):927–931. doi: 10.1007/s10067-010-1453-z
- McCarthy C, Callaghan M, Oldham J. Pulsed electromagnetic energy treatment offers no clinical benefit in reducing the pain of knee osteoarthritis: A systematic review. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2006;(7):51. doi: 10.1186/1471-2474-7-51
- Thamsborg G, Florescu A, Oturai P, et al. Treatment of knee osteoarthritis with pulsed electromagnetic fields: A rando mized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Osteoarthr Cartil. 2005;13(7):575–581. doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2005.02.012
- Wuschech H, von Hehn U, Mikus E, Funk RH. Effects of pulsing electric field on patients with osteoarthritis: Results of a prospective, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Bioelectromagnetics. 2015;36(8):576–585. doi: 10.1002/bem.21942
- Esposito M, Lucariello A, Costanzo C, et al. Differentiation of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stm cells, WJ-MSCs, into chondrogenic cells in the presence of pulsed electromagnetic fields. In Vivo. 2013;27(4):495–500.
- De Mattei M, Caruso A, Pezzetti F, et al. Effects of pulsed electromagnetic fields on human articular chondrocyte proliferation. Connect Tissue Res. 2001;42(4):269–279. doi: 10.3109/03008200109016841
- Anbarasan S, Baraneedharan U, Paul SF, et al. Low dose short duration pulsed electromagnetic field effects on cultured human chondrocytes: An experimental study. Indian J Orthop. 2016;50(1):87–93. doi: 10.4103/0019-5413.173522
- Fitzsimmons RJ, Gordon SL, Kronberg J, et al. A pulsing electric field (PEF) increases human chondrocyte proliferation through a transduction pathway involving nitric oxide signaling. J Orthop Res. 2008;26(6):854–859. doi: 10.1002/jor.20590
- Fini M, Torricelli P, Giavaresi G, et al. Effect of pulsed electromagnetic field stimulation on knee cartilage, subchondral and epyphiseal trabecular bone of aged Dunkin Hartley guinea pigs. Biomed Pharmacother. 2008;62(10):709–715. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2007.03.001
- Ciombor DM, Aaron RK, Wang S, Simon B. Modification of osteoarthritis by pulsed electromagnetic field-а morphological study. Osteoarthr Cartil. 2003;11(6):455–462. doi: 10.1016/s1063-4584(03)00083-9
- Varani K, De Mattei M, Vincenzi F, et al. Characterization of adenosine receptors in bovine chondrocytes and fibroblast-like synoviocytes exposed to low frequency low energy pulsed electromagnetic fields. Osteoarthr Cartil. 2008;16(3):292–304. doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2007.07.004
- De Mattei M, Fini M, Setti S, et al. Proteoglycan synthesis in bovine articular cartilage explants exposed to different low-frequency low-energy pulsed electromagnetic fields. Osteoarthr Cartil. 2007;15(2):163–168. doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2006.06.019
- Trock DH, Bollet AJ, Dyer RH, et al. A double-blind trial of the clinical effects of pulsed electromagnetic fields in osteoarthritis. J Rheumatol. 1993;20(3):456–460.
- Trock DH, Bollet AJ, Markoll R. The effect of pulsed electromagnetic fields in the treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee and cervical spine. Report of randomized, double blind, placebo controlled trials. J Rheumatol. 1994;21(10):1903–1911.
- Vigano M, Perucca Orfei C, Ragni E, et al. Pain and functional scores in patients affected by knee OA after treatment with pulsed electromagnetic and magnetic fields: A meta-analysis. Cartilage. 2021;13(1 Suppl.):1749S–1760S. doi: 10.1177/1947603520931168
- Macias I, Alcorta-Sevillano N, Rodriguez CI, Infante A. Osteoporosis and the potential of cell-based therapeutic strategies. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(5):1653. doi: 10.3390/ijms21051653
- Cummings SR, Melton LJ. Epidemiology and outcomes of osteoporotic fractures. Lancet. 2002;359(9319):1761–1767. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08657-9
- Watts NB, Bilezikian JP, Camacho PM, et al. American associa tion of clinical endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the diagnosis and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Endocr Pract. 2010;16(Suppl. 3):1–37. doi: 10.4158/ep.16.s3.1
- Tanaka Y, Ohira T. Mechanisms and therapeutic targets for bone damage in rheumatoid arthritis, in particular the RANK-RANKL system. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2018;(40):110–119. doi: 10.1016/j.coph.2018.03.006
- Kanis JA, Cooper C, Rizzoli R, et al.; Scientific Advisory Board of the European Society for Clinical and Economic Aspects of Osteoporosis (ESCEO) and the Committees of Scientific Advisors and National Societies of the International Osteoporosis Foundation (IOF). European guidance for the diagnosis and management of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int. 2019;30(1):3–44. doi: 10.1007/s00198-018-4704-5
- Compston J, Bowring C, Cooper A, et al. National Osteoporosis Guideline, Diagnosis and management of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women and older men in the UK: National Osteoporosis Guideline Group (NOGG) update 2013. Maturitas. 2013;75(4)392–396. doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2013.05.013
- Reginster JY, Pelousse F, Bruyere O. Safety concerns with the long-term management of osteoporosis. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2013;12(4):507–522. doi: 10.1517/14740338.2013.793669
- Chiu WY, Lee JJ, Tsai KS. Atypical femoral fractures shortly after osteonecrosis of the jaw in a postmenopausal woman taking alendronate for osteoporosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(4):E723–726. doi: 10.1210/jc.2012-4144
- Anastasilakis AD, Toulis KA, Goulis DG, et al. Efficacy and safety of denosumab in postmenopausal women with osteopenia or osteoporosis: A systematic review and a meta-analysis. Horm Metab Res. 2009;41(10):721–729. doi: 10.1055/s-0029-1224109
- Papapoulos S, Chapurlat R, Libanati C, et al. Five years of denosumab exposure in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis: Results from the first two years of the FREEDOM extension. J Bone Miner Res. 2012;27(3):694–701. doi: 10.1002/jbmr.1479
- Body JJ, Bergmann P, Boonen S, et al. Extraskeletal benefits and risks of calcium, vitamin D and anti-osteoporosis medications. Osteoporos Int. 2012;23(Suppl. 1):Sl–23. doi: 10.1007/s00198-011-1891-8
- Cummings SR, Schwartz AV, Black DM. Alendronate and atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(18):1895–1896. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc076132
- Ettinger B, Burr DB, Ritchie RO. Proposed pathogenesis for atypical femoral fractures: Lessons from materials research. Bone. 2013;5(2):495–500. doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2013.02.004
- Camacho PM, Petak SM, Binkley N, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Postmenopausal. Osteoporosis--2016. Endocr Pract. 2016;22(Suppl. 4):1–12. doi: 10.4158/EP161435.GL
- Liu H, Zhou J, Gu L, Zuo Y. The change of HCN1/HCN2 mRNA expression in peripheral nerve after chronic constriction injury induced neuropathy followed by pulsed electromagnetic field therapy. Oncotarget. 2017;8(1):1110–1116. doi: 10.18632/oncotarget.13584
- Liu HF, Yang L, He HC, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic fields on postmenopausal osteoporosis in Southwest China: Arandomized, active-controlled clinical trial. Bioelectromagnetics. 2013;34(4):323–332. doi: 10.1002/bem.21770
- Huang LQ, He HC, He CQ, et al. Clinical update of pulsed electromagnetic fields on osteoporosis. Chin Med J. 2008;121(20):2095–2099.
- Spadaro JA, Short WH, Sheehe PR, et al. Electromagnetic effects on forearm disuse osteopenia: A randomized, doubleblind, sham-controlled study. Bioelectromagnetics. 2011;32(4):273–282. doi: 10.1002/bem.20632
- Roozbeh N, Abdi F, Amraee A, et al. Influence of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields on the fertility system: Protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. JMIR Res Protoc. 2018;7(2):e33. doi: 10.2196/resprot.9102
- Giordano N, Battisti E, Geraci S, et al. Effect of electromagne tic fields on bone mineral density and biochemical markers of bone turnover in osteoporosis: A single-blind, randomized pilot study. Curr Ther Res. 2001;62(3):187–193. doi: 10.1016/S0011-393X(01)80030-8
- Garland DE, Adkins RH, Matsuno NN, Stewart CA. The effect of pulsed electromagnetic fields on osteoporosis at the knee in individuals with spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med. 1999;22(4)239–245. doi: 10.1080/10790268.1999.11719576
- Tabrah FL, Ross P, Hoffmeier M, Gilbert JF. Clinical report on long-term bone density after short-term EMF application. Bioelectromagnetics. 1998;19(2):75–78. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1521-186x(1998)19:2<75::aid-bem3>3.0.co;2-0
- Petek D, Hannouche D, Suva D. Osteonecrosis of the femoral head: Pathophysiology and current concepts of treatment. EFORT Open Rev. 2019;4(3):85–97. doi: 10.1302/2058-5241.4.180036
- Leo M, Milena F, Ruggero C, et al. Biophysical stimulation in osteonecrosis of the femoral head. Indian J Orthop. 2009;43(1):17–21. doi: 10.4103/0019-5413.45319
- Mont MA, Jones LC, Hungerford DS. Nontraumatic osteonecrosis of the femoral head: Ten years later. J Bone Jt Surg Am. 2006;88(5):1117–1132. doi: 10.2106/JBJS.E.01041
- Kubo T, Ueshima K, Saito M, et al. Clinical and basic research on steroid-induced osteonecrosis of the femoral head in Japan. J Orthop Sci. 2016;21(4):407–413. doi: 10.1016/j.jos.2016.03.008
- Gangji V, Hauzeur JP, Matos C, et al. Treatment of osteonecrosis of the femoral head with implantation of autologous bone-marrow cells. A pilot study. J Bone Jt Surg. 2004;86(6):1153–1160. doi: 10.2106/00004623-200406000-00006
- Korompilias AV, Beris AE, Lykissas MG, et al. Femoral head osteonecrosis: Why choose free vascularized fibula grafting. Microsurgery. 2011;31(3):223–228. doi: 10.1002/micr.20837
- Keizer SB, Kock NB, Dijkstra PD, et al. Treatment of avascular necrosis of the hip by a non-vascularised cortical graft. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2006;88(4):460–466. doi: 10.1302/0301-620X.88B4.16950
- Shannon BD, Trousdale RT. Femoral osteotomies for avascular necrosis of the femoral head. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2004;(418):34–40. doi: 10.1097/00003086-200401000-00007
- Siguier T, Siguier M, Judet T, et al. Partial resurfacing arthroplasty of the femoral head in avascular necrosis. Methods, indications, and results. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2001;(386):85–92. doi: 10.1097/00003086-200105000-00011
- Ding S, Peng H, Fang HS, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic fields stimulation prevents steroid-induced osteonecrosis in rats. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2011;(12):215. doi: 10.1186/1471-2474-12-215
- Ishida M, Fujioka M, Takahashi KA, et al. Electromagnetic fields: A novel prophylaxis for steroid-induced osteonecrosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2008;466(5):1068–1073.
- Massari L, Fini M, Cadossi R, et al. Biophysical stimulation with pulsed electromagnetic fields in osteonecrosis of the femoral head. J Bone Jt Surg Am. 2006;88 (Suppl. 3):56–60. doi: 10.2106/JBJS.F.00536
- Bassett CA, Schink-Ascani M, Lewis SM. Effects of pulsed electromagnetic fields on Steinberg ratings of femoral head osteonecrosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1989;(246):172–185.
- Muccioli GM, Grassi A, Setti S, et al. Conservative treatment of spontaneous osteonecrosis of the knee in the early stage: Pulsed electromagnetic fields therapy. Eur J Radiol. 2013;82(3):530–537. doi: 10.1016/j.ejrad.2012.11.011
- Ikegami A, Ueshima K, Saito M, et al. Femoral perfusion after pulsed lectromagnetic field stimulation in a steroid-induced osteonecrosis model. Bioelectromagnetics. 2015;36(5):349–357. doi: 10.1002/bem.21910
- Rosso F, Bonasia DE, Marmotti A, et al. Mechanical stimulation (pulsed electromagnetic fields PEMP and extracorporeal shock wave therapy ESWT) and tendon regeneration: A possible alternative. Front Aging Neurosci. 2015;(7):211. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2015.00211
- Andres BM, Murrell GA. Treatment of tendinopathy: What works, what does not, and what is on the horizon. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2008;466(7):1539–1554. doi: 10.1007/s11999-008-0260-1
- Tempfer H, Lehner C, Griitz M, et al. Biological augmentation for tendon repair: Lessons to be learned from development, disease, and tendon. Stem Cell Res. 2017;(1)1–31. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-08831-0_54
- Gehwolf R, Schwemberger B, Jessen M, et al. Global responses of IL-ip-primed 3D tendon constructs to treatment with pulsed electromagnetic fields. Cells. 2019;8(5):399. doi: 10.3390/cells8050399
- Abate M, Silbernagel KG, Siljeholm C, et al. Pathogenesis of tendinopathies: Inflammation or degeneration. Arthritis Res Ther. 2009;11(3):235. doi: 10.1186/ar2723
- Millar NL, Murrell GA, Mclnnes IB. Inflammatory mechanisms in tendinopathy--towards translation. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2017;13(2):110–122. doi: 10.1038/nrrheum.2016.213
- Dean BJ, Gettings P, Dakin SG, Carr AJ. Are inflammatory cells increased in painful human tendinopathy. A systematic review. Br J Sports Med. 2016;50(4):216–220. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2015-094754
- Schulze-Tanzil G, Al-Sadi O, Wiegand E, et al. The role of pro-inflammatory and immunoregulatory cytokines in tendon healing and rupture: New insights. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2011;21(3):337–351. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01265.x
- Benazzo F, Cadossi M, Cavani F, et al. Cartilage repair with osteochondral autografts in sheep: Effect of biophysical stimulation with pulsed electromagnetic fields. J Orthop Res. 2008;26(5):631–642. doi: 10.1002/jor.20530
- Osti L, Buono AD, Maffulli N. Pulsed electromagnetic fields after rotator cuff repair: A randomized, controlled study. Orthopedics. 2015;38(3):e223–228. doi: 10.3928/01477447-20150305-61
- De Girolamo L, Vigano M, Galliera E, et al. In vitro functional response of human tendon cells to different dosages of low-frequency pulsed electromagnetic field. Knee Surg Sport Traumatol Arthrosc. 2015;23(11):3443–3453. doi: 10.1007/s00167-014-3143-x
- De Girolamo L, Stanco D, Galliera E, et al. Low frequency pulsed electromagnetic field affects proliferation, tissue-specific gene expression, and cytokines release of human tendon cells. Cell Biochem Biophys. 2013;66(3):697–708. doi: 10.1007/s12013-013-9514-y
- Liu M, Lee C, Laron D, et al. Role of pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF) on tenocytes and myoblasts-potcntial application for treating rotator cuff tears. J Orthop Res. 2017;35(5):956–964. doi: 10.1002/jor.23278
- Marmotti A, Peretti GM, Mattia S, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic fields improve tenogenic commitment of umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells: A potential strategy for tendon repair-an in vitro study. Stem Cells Int. 2018;(2018):9048237. doi: 10.1155/2018/9048237
- Randelli P, Menon A, Ragone V, et al. Effects of the pulsed electromagnetic field PST® on human tendon stem cells: A controlled laboratory study. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2016;(16):293. doi: 10.1186/s12906-016-1261-3
- Uzunca K, Birtane M, Tastekin N. Effectiveness of pulsed electromagnetic field therapy in lateral epicondylitis. Clin Rheumatol. 2007;26(1):69–74. doi: 10.1007/s10067-006-0247-9
- Devereaux MD, Hazleman BL, Thomas PP. Chronic lateral humeral epicondylitis: A double-blind controlled assessment of pulsed electromagnetic field therapy. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1985;3(4):333–336.
- Sutbeyaz ST, Sezer N, Koseoglu F, Kibar S. Low-frequency pulsed electromagnetic field therapy in fibromyalgia: A randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled clinical study. Clin J Pain. 2009;25(8):722–728. doi: 10.1097/AJP.0b013e3181a68a6c
- Maestu C, Blanco M, Nevado A, et al. Reduction of pain thresholds in fibromyalgia after very low-intensity magne tic stimulation: A double-blinded, randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial. Pain Res Manag. 2013;18(6):el01–106. doi: 10.1155/2013/270183
- Lee HM, Kwon UH, Kim H, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic field stimulates cellular proliferation in human intervertebral disc cells. Yonsei Med J. 2010;51(6):954–959. doi: 10.3349/ymj.2010.51.6.954
- Miller SL, Coughlin DG, Waldorff EI, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic field (PEMP) treatment reduces expression of genes associated with disc degeneration in human intervertebral disc cells. Spine J. 2016;16(6):770–776. doi: 10.1016/j.spinee.2016.01.003
- Hattapoglu E, Batmaz I, Dilek B, et al. Efficiency of pulsed electromagnetic fields on pain, disability, anxiety, depression, and quality of life in patients with cervical disc herniation: A randomized controlled study. Turk J Med Sci. 2019;49(4):1095–1101. doi: 10.3906/sag-1901-65
- Thomas AW, Graham K, Prato FS, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial using a low-frequency magnetic field in the treatment of musculoskeletal chronic pain. Pain Res Manag. 2007;12(4):249–258. doi: 10.1155/2007/626072
- Seo N, Lee SH, Ju KW, et al. Low-frequency pulsed electromagnetic field pretreated bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells promote the regeneration of crush-injured rat mental nerve. Neural Regen Res. 2018;13(1):145–153. doi: 10.4103/1673-5374.224383
- Zhu S, Ge J, Liu Z, et al. Circadian rhythm influences the promoting role of pulsed electromagnetic fields on sciatic nerve regeneration in rats. Front Neurol. 2017;(8):101. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2017.00101
- Zhou J, Liao Y, Xie H, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic field ameliorates cartilage degeneration by inhibiting mitogen-activated protein kinases in a rat model of osteoarthritis. Phys Ther Sport. 2017;(24):32–38. doi: 10.1016/j.ptsp.2016.10.003
- Nelson FR, Zvirbulis R, Pilla AA. Non-invasive electromagnetic field therapy produces rapid and substantial pain reduction in early knee osteoarthritis: A randomized double-blind pilot study. Rheumatol Int. 2013;33(8):2169–2173. doi: 10.1007/s00296-012-2366-8
- Rutherford G, Lithgow B, Moussavi Z. Transcranial magnetic stimulation safety from operator exposure perspective. Med Biol Eng Comput. 2020;58(2):249–256. doi: 10.1007/s11517-019-02084-w
- Shuvy M, Abedat S, Beeri R, et al. Electromagnetic fields promote severe and unique vascular calcification in an animal model of ectopic calcification. Exp Toxicol Pathol. 2014;66(7):345–350. doi: 10.1016/j.etp.2014.05.001
- Schenck JF, Dumoulin CL, Redington RW, et al. Human exposure to 4.0-Tesla magnetic fields in a whole-body scanner. Med Phys. 1992;19(4):1089–1098. doi: 10.1118/1.596827
- Bailey WH, Su SH, Bracken TD, Kavet R. Summary and evaluation of guidelines for occupational exposure to power frequency electric and magnetic fields. Health Phys. 1997;73(3):433–453. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199709000-00002
- Van Wijngaarden E, Savitz DA, Kleckner RC, et al. Exposure to electromagnetic fields and suicide among electric utility workers: A nested case-control study. West J Med. 2000;173(2):94–100. doi: 10.1136/ewjm.173.2.94
- Baris D, Armstrong BG, Deadman J, Theriault G. A case cohort study of suicide in relation to exposure to electric and magne tic fields among electrical utility workers. Occup Environ Med. 1996;53(1):17–24. doi: 10.1136/oem.53.1.17
- Bailey WH. Health effects relevant to the setting of EMF exposure limits. Health Phys. 2002;83(3):376–386. doi: 10.1097/00004032-200209000-00007
- Rossi S, Hallett A, Pascual-Leone PM. Safety, ethical consi derations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research. Clin Neurophysiol. 2009;120(12);2008–2039. doi: 10.1016/j.clinph.2009.08.016
- Kheifets L, Ahlbom A, Crespi CM, et al. Pooled analysis of recent studies on magnetic fields and childhood leukaemia. Br J Cancer. 2010;103(7):1128–1135. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6605838
- Hosseinabadi BM, Khanjani N, Mirzaii M, et al. DNA damage from long-term occupational exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields among power plant workers. Mutat Res. 2019;(846):403079. doi: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2019.07.007
- Panagopoulos DJ. Comparing DNA damage induced by mobile telephony and other types of man-made electromagnetic fields. Mutat Res. 2019;(781):53–62. doi: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2019.03.003